# CommandSection

title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The 'mmdc' command does not appear to be a standard or widely recognized Linux utility across common distributions. There is no public documentation or common usage for a command with this name found in standard man pages or online repositories of Linux commands. It is highly probable that this command refers to a very specific, niche, custom, or defunct application, or it may be a typographical error. Users are advised to double-check the command name for correctness or to refer to specific project documentation where 'mmdc' might be defined.


title: CAVEATS
content:
As 'mmdc' is not a standard Linux command, attempting to execute it will likely result in a 'command not found' error in most Linux environments. If you encountered this command, please verify its context, source, or intended name. It may be part of a custom build environment, a very specific software package not commonly distributed, or a typo for another command (e.g., 'mdadm', 'mmap', 'mmv', etc.).


title: COMMAND EXISTENCE
content:
No evidence suggests 'mmdc' is a standard Linux utility distributed with common operating systems. If this command is encountered, it likely refers to a custom script, a very specific package, or a typographical error. Users should confirm the intended command and its source to avoid unexpected behavior or errors.


title: HISTORY
content:
No historical information is available for a standard 'mmdc' Linux command. Its existence is not documented in common Linux command references or man pages, indicating it is not a part of standard Linux toolsets.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-a</b> <i>ARCH</i>, <b>--arch</b>=<i>ARCH</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the architecture of the target system (e.g., <i>amd64</i>, <i>arm64</i>). This is crucial for cross-architecture builds.<br><br><b><b>--foreign</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Perform a 'foreign' bootstrap, where the target architecture is different from the host. This implies that the final <b>dpkg --configure -a</b> step must be run within the target architecture's environment (e.g., via <b>qemu-user-static</b>).<br><br><b><b>--unpack-foreign</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;In a 'foreign' bootstrap, this option causes <b>mmdebstrap</b> to unpack all packages on the host system. This can be faster but requires <b>qemu-user-static</b> to be correctly set up for cross-unpacking.<br><br><b><b>--variant</b>=<i>NAME</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Select a bootstrap variant. Common variants include <i>minbase</i> (minimal system), <i>buildd</i> (for package building), or <i>essential</i> (only essential packages). Defaults to <i>minbase</i>.<br><br><b><b>--include</b>=<i>PKG1,PKG2,...</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify a comma-separated list of packages to install in addition to the default set for the chosen variant.<br><br><b><b>--exclude</b>=<i>PKG1,PKG2,...</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify a comma-separated list of packages to exclude from the installation, even if they would normally be included by the chosen variant or dependencies.<br><br><b><b>--components</b>=<i>COMP1,COMP2,...</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the APT components to enable (e.g., <i>main</i>, <i>contrib</i>, <i>non-free</i>). Defaults to <i>main</i>.<br><br><b><b>--keyring</b>=<i>FILE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Use an alternative keyring file instead of the default <b>debian-archive-keyring.gpg</b>. Useful for custom repositories.<br><br><b><b>--setup-hook</b>=<i>SCRIPT</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Execute a shell script <i>SCRIPT</i> inside the chroot before the packages are unpacked. This allows for early customization, like adding custom APT sources or debconf preseeds.<br><br><b><b>--customize-hook</b>=<i>SCRIPT</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Execute a shell script <i>SCRIPT</i> inside the chroot after all packages have been unpacked and configured. This is ideal for post-installation setup, like creating users, configuring networking, or installing additional software.<br><br><b><b>--format</b>=<i>FORMAT</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the output format for the bootstrap. Supported formats include <i>tar</i> (default), <i>tar.gz</i>, <i>tar.bz2</i>, <i>tar.xz</i>, <i>squashfs</i>, <i>ext2</i>, <i>ext3</i>, <i>ext4</i>, and <i>null</i> (for temporary chroot).<br><br><b><b>--output</b>=<i>FILE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Write the output to <i>FILE</i> instead of standard output (for tar formats) or a generated filename (for image formats). Required for image formats.<br><br><b><b>--apt-option</b>=<i>OPTION</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pass an arbitrary option string directly to <b>apt</b> (e.g., <i>-o Acquire::ForceIPv4=true</i>).<br><br><b><b>--dpkg-foreign-architecture</b>=<i>ARCH</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Add a foreign architecture to <b>dpkg</b> within the target chroot. Useful for multi-architecture builds where you want to install packages for another architecture later.<br><br><b><b>--chroot</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instead of creating an archive or image, keep the chroot directory at the specified <i>TARGET</i> path. This allows for direct interaction with the bootstrapped system.<br><br><b><b>--skip</b>=<i>STAGE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Skip a specific stage of the bootstrap process. Can be used multiple times. Stages include <i>extract</i>, <i>setup</i>, <i>install</i>, <i>configure</i>, <i>cleanup</i>.<br><br><b><b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Increase verbosity of output, showing more details about the bootstrap process.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mmdebstrap</b> is a versatile and powerful tool designed to create minimal Debian, Ubuntu, or other derivative root filesystems. It serves as a more advanced and flexible alternative to the traditional <b>debootstrap</b> utility. Unlike its predecessor, <b>mmdebstrap</b> offers robust support for multi-architecture chroots and images, allowing users to bootstrap systems for different CPU architectures (e.g., ARM64 on an AMD64 host) seamlessly using <b>qemu-user-static</b>.<br><br>It can fetch packages from multiple APT sources, including official mirrors, local repositories, or <b>apt-cacher-ng</b>, providing extensive control over the package fetching process. Users can specify exact package lists to include or exclude, pre-seed <b>debconf</b> settings, and execute custom shell scripts at various stages of the bootstrap process via powerful hook mechanisms. The output can be directed to a directory (for a chroot), or various archive formats like <i>tarballs</i>, <i>squashfs</i> images, or <i>ext2/3/4</i> filesystem images. Its reliability and advanced features make it an invaluable tool for building custom container images, virtual machines, and reproducible build environments.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Running <b>mmdebstrap</b> typically requires root privileges to create and populate the target filesystem. It can consume significant disk space and network bandwidth, especially when bootstrapping multiple architectures or large package sets. Proper setup of essential tools like <b>qemu-user-static</b> (for cross-architecture bootstrapping) and sufficient disk space are critical for successful operation. Errors can occur if APT mirrors are unreachable or package dependencies are not resolvable.


title: HOOK SCRIPTS
content:
The <b>--setup-hook</b> and <b>--customize-hook</b> options are incredibly powerful for tailoring the bootstrapped system. These options allow users to inject custom shell scripts that run within the chroot at critical points: <i>setup-hook</i> before packages are unpacked, and <i>customize-hook</i> after all packages are installed and configured. This enables complex customizations such as adding new repositories, configuring system services, creating users, or installing software not available through standard APT packages.


title: MULTI-ARCHITECTURE BOOTSTRAPPING
content:
One of <b>mmdebstrap</b>'s standout features is its native support for multi-architecture bootstrapping. By leveraging <b>qemu-user-static</b>, it can create a root filesystem for an ARM64 system on an AMD64 host, for example. This is invaluable for embedded systems development, cross-compilation environments, and building container images for diverse architectures without needing native hardware, significantly streamlining development and deployment workflows.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mmdebstrap</b> was developed as a more modern and robust alternative to the venerable <b>debootstrap</b> utility. It emerged to address several limitations of <b>debootstrap</b>, particularly its less flexible handling of multi-architecture builds, its limited support for complex APT source configurations, and the lack of fine-grained control over the bootstrap stages. The 'mm' in its name often stands for 'multi-mirror' or 'many-mode', reflecting its ability to use multiple APT mirrors and support various output formats and customization options. It has become a preferred tool in the Debian and Ubuntu ecosystems for creating reproducible, minimal, and highly customized root filesystems, especially in automated build pipelines and containerization workflows.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-i imgtype</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specify the image type. Examples include 'raw' (for raw disk images), 'ewf' (for EnCase EWF images), or 'aff' (for Advanced Forensic Format images).</i><br><br><b><b>-o offset</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specify the byte offset from the start of the image where the volume system (partition table) begins. This is useful for images with leading data or embedded partition tables within larger files.</i><br><br><b><b>-t type</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specify the partition table type to parse. Supported types include 'dos' (for MBR), 'gpt' (for GUID Partition Table), 'mac' (for Apple Partition Map), 'bsd' (for BSD disk labels), and 'sun' (for Sun VTOC). If not specified, <b>mmls</b> attempts to auto-detect the type.</i><br><br><b><b>-V</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Display the version of The Sleuth Kit that <b>mmls</b> is part of and exit.</i><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i><b>mmls</b> is a command-line utility from The Sleuth Kit (TSK), a powerful suite of digital forensic tools. Its primary function is to display the partition layout of a disk image or a physical storage device. It parses various partition table formats, including DOS/MBR, GUID Partition Table (GPT), Apple Partition Map, BSD disk labels, and Sun VTOC. By providing a clear listing of partitions, their start and end sectors, and their reported size, <b>mmls</b> helps forensic investigators and system administrators understand the structural organization of a storage medium before deeper file system analysis. It's a foundational tool for initial disk image examination, capable of revealing visible, hidden, or deleted partitions that might contain crucial evidence.</i>


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i><b>mmls</b> typically requires root privileges when analyzing raw physical devices (e.g., <code>/dev/sda</code>). It is a read-only tool, meaning it will not modify the disk image or device being analyzed. While it supports many common partition table formats, it may not perfectly interpret highly corrupted or custom partition structures. For best results, analyze the entire disk image, not just a partition image, to ensure the primary partition table is included.</i>


title: OUTPUT INTERPRETATION
content:
<i>The output of <b>mmls</b> typically presents partition details in columns such as 'Offset' (the starting sector of the partition relative to the image or device beginning), 'Length' (the total number of sectors occupied by the partition), and 'Description' (a human-readable label identifying the partition's intended use or file system type, e.g., 'Linux Swap', 'NTFS', 'Unallocated'). These details are critical for understanding the layout and for subsequent forensic analysis to identify and mount specific file systems.</i>


title: HISTORY
content:
<i><b>mmls</b> is a core component of The Sleuth Kit (TSK), a collection of open-source digital forensics tools. TSK was originally developed by Brian Carrier in the late 1990s as a replacement for older forensic tools, aiming to provide a robust and extensible framework for analyzing various file systems and disk image formats. <b>mmls</b> specifically addresses the need for reliable partition table analysis, which is a fundamental first step in any digital forensic examination. Its continuous development ensures compatibility with new partition schemes and image formats, making it a staple in the cybersecurity and law enforcement communities.</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Verbose output</I>.<br>Displays the name of each file or directory as it is moved or renamed.<br><br><b>-a</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Ask before overwriting</I>.<br>Prompts the user for confirmation before overwriting an existing destination file.<br><br><b>-p</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Preserve attributes</I>.<br>Attempts to preserve the original file's modification date and time during the move operation.<br><br><b>-o</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Overwrite without prompting</I>.<br>Overwrites an existing destination file without asking for user confirmation.<br><br><b>-n</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>No overwrite</I>.<br>If the destination file already exists, the move operation is skipped, and the existing file is not overwritten.<br><br><b>-N</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Long to short filename conversion</I>.<br>If the source filename is a long filename and the destination filesystem does not support it, <i>mmove</i> attempts to convert it to a short (8.3) filename.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mmove</i> is a utility from the <i>mtools</i> suite designed to move and rename files and directories on MS-DOS filesystems from a Linux environment. It functions similarly to the standard Unix <i>mv</i> command but is specifically tailored for MS-DOS conventions, including the 8.3 filename limit and case-insensitivity during lookup (though often preserving original case for display).<br><br>This command is invaluable for interacting with legacy media like floppy disks or disk images formatted with MS-DOS, or for systems that require direct manipulation of MS-DOS partitions without full kernel-level mounting. It supports wildcard characters for moving multiple files and can move files between different MS-DOS drives or rename them within the same directory. <i>mmove</i> typically handles file attributes like modification times, depending on the options used.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mmove</i> strictly operates on MS-DOS filesystems and does not function on native Linux filesystems. It adheres to MS-DOS file naming rules (e.g., 8.3 character limit, case-insensitivity in lookup) and does not support advanced Linux filesystem features like permissions, symbolic links, or hard links. Proper configuration of MS-DOS drive letters via the <i>mtools</i> configuration file (e.g., <i>~/.mtoolsrc</i>) is essential for specifying target drives (e.g., 'a:', 'c:').


title: MS-DOS DRIVE SPECIFICATION
content:
When using <i>mmove</i> to move files to or from different MS-DOS drives, these drives are specified using a drive letter followed by a colon (e.g., <i>a:</i>, <i>c:</i>). The mapping of these drive letters to actual devices or partitions on the Linux system is typically configured in the <i>mtools</i> configuration file.


title: WILDCARD SUPPORT
content:
<i>mmove</i> supports standard MS-DOS wildcard characters in the source path. These include <i>*</i> (which matches any sequence of characters) and <i>?</i> (which matches any single character), allowing for batch moving or renaming of multiple files.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <i>mtools</i> suite, including <i>mmove</i>, emerged to bridge the gap between Unix-like operating systems and MS-DOS filesystems. Its development began in an era when floppy disks were prevalent and seamless file exchange with MS-DOS was a common requirement. <i>mtools</i> provided direct access to MS-DOS media without requiring kernel-level drivers to mount them, offering a convenient command-line interface. While less critical for modern desktop Linux due to improved kernel support for FAT filesystems, <i>mtools</i> and <i>mmove</i> remain valuable tools for legacy systems, forensic analysis, or embedded environments that still rely on MS-DOS partitions.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>-T<device></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the output device (e.g., <I>ps</I> for PostScript, <I>utf8</I> for terminal output, <I>html</I> for HTML, <I>dvi</I>).<br><br><br><b><i>-t</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Process the input with the <I>tbl</I> preprocessor for tables.<br><br><br><b><i>-e</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Process the input with the <I>eqn</I> preprocessor for equations.<br><br><br><b><i>-p</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Process the input with the <I>pic</I> preprocessor for diagrams.<br><br><br><b><i>-u</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Process the input with the <I>refer</I> preprocessor for bibliographic references.<br><br><br><b><i>-P<args></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pass <I>args</I> to the postprocessor.<br><br><br><b><i>-o <pages></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Output only specified <I>pages</I> (e.g., <I>1,3-5,9</I>).<br><br><br><b><i>-s</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress standard error messages.<br><br><br><b><i>-D</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable debugging output.<br><br><br><b><i>-r<Cn></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set string register <I>C</I> to value <I>n</I>.<br><br><br><b><i>--help</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a help message and exit.<br><br><br><b><i>--version</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display version information and exit.<br><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mmroff</b> is a command used to format documents written using the <b>mm</b> (Memorandum Macros) macro package.<br>It serves as a wrapper or a specific invocation of the <b>groff</b> command, typically by executing <I>groff -mm</I>.<br>The <b>mm</b> macros were designed for general-purpose technical documentation, including reports, letters, and memos, distinct from macro sets like <b>man</b> or <b>mdoc</b> which are tailored specifically for UNIX manual pages.<br><b>mmroff</b> takes <b>mm</b> source files as input and processes them through <b>groff</b> (and potentially its preprocessors like <b>tbl</b>, <b>eqn</b>) to produce various output formats, such as plain text (suitable for terminals), PostScript, HTML, or DVI.<br>It facilitates the display and printing of <b>mm</b>-formatted files, ensuring consistent presentation across different output devices.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The <b>mmroff</b> command is frequently a symbolic link or a shell script wrapper for <I>groff -mm</I>. Therefore, its exact behavior and available options often mirror those of the underlying <b>groff</b> command.<br>While still supported, the <b>mm</b> macro set is less commonly used for new UNIX manual pages compared to the <b>man</b> or <b>mdoc</b> macro packages.<br>


title: WRAPPER IMPLEMENTATION
content:
On many Linux systems, <b>mmroff</b> is not a standalone executable but rather a symbolic link to <b>groff</b> or a simple shell script that internally calls <I>groff -mm</I>. This means that any option or argument valid for <b>groff</b> can generally be passed to <b>mmroff</b>.<br>


title: PURPOSE OF MM MACROS
content:
Unlike the <b>man</b> or <b>mdoc</b> macro sets which are highly specialized for UNIX manual pages, the <b>mm</b> macros provide a broader range of formatting capabilities suitable for general technical documentation, including headers, footers, lists, paragraphs, and cross-references, making them flexible for various report-style documents.<br>


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>mm</b> (Memorandum Macros) macro set originated from AT&T Bell Labs, designed for general-purpose document formatting, especially for technical reports and internal memos.<br><b>nroff</b> and <b>troff</b> were developed in the 1970s as text formatters. <b>groff</b> (GNU <b>roff</b>) is a modern re-implementation that provides extended capabilities and supports various macro packages, including <b>mm</b>.<br><b>mmroff</b> emerged as a convenient way to invoke <b>groff</b> specifically with the <b>mm</b> macro set, providing a familiar interface for users accustomed to older <b>nroff</b>/<b>troff</b> systems. While its direct usage has diminished with the rise of dedicated <b>man</b> and <b>mdoc</b> macros for system documentation, <b>mm</b> remains a versatile option for other types of documents.<br>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-m</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a move operation. This is the default action if no other operation flag is specified.<br><br><b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a copy operation, leaving the original files intact.<br><br><b><b>-l</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates hard links to the target files instead of moving or copying.<br><br><b><b>-s</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates symbolic (soft) links to the target files instead of moving or copying.<br><br><b><b>-o</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Overwrites existing destination files without prompting for confirmation.<br><br><b><b>-t</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Skips files that would overwrite an existing destination file without prompting.<br><br><b><b>-u</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Only moves or copies a file if the destination file is older than the source, or if the destination does not exist.<br><br><b><b>-n</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a 'dry-run'. It shows what actions <i>mmv</i> would take without actually executing them, useful for verifying complex patterns.<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Activates verbose mode, displaying each file operation as it is performed.<br><br><b><b>-a</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Includes hidden files (those starting with a dot '.') in the matching process. By default, hidden files are ignored unless explicitly matched by the pattern.<br><br><b><b>-x</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Ensures that wildcards in the source pattern do not match '.' or '..' directory entries, preventing unintended operations.<br><br><b><b>--</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Indicates the end of options. This allows the <i>source_pattern</i> or <i>target_pattern</i> to begin with a hyphen.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mmv</i> (mass move) is a powerful command-line utility for moving, copying, linking, or renaming multiple files based on pattern matching. Unlike the standard <i>mv</i> command, <i>mmv</i> excels at performing complex bulk operations by allowing users to specify a source pattern and a target pattern. It interprets wildcards (<b>*</b>, <b>?</b>, <b>[</b>...<b>]</b>) in the source pattern and uses numbered wildcards (<b>#1</b>, <b>#2</b>, etc.) in the target pattern to represent the text matched by the corresponding wildcard in the source.<br><br>This makes it ideal for tasks such as changing file extensions, inserting text into filenames, or reordering parts of a filename across a large set of files. <i>mmv</i> also offers a dry-run mode (<b>-n</b>) to preview operations before execution, significantly reducing the risk of unintended file changes. It can prevent accidental overwrites and handles various file types, making it an indispensable tool for advanced file management in Unix-like systems.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mmv</i>'s wildcard patterns are interpreted internally by the command itself, not by the shell. Therefore, it is almost always necessary to enclose both the <i>source_pattern</i> and <i>target_pattern</i> in single quotes to prevent the shell from expanding them prematurely. Errors in pattern matching can lead to unintended file changes; always use the <b>-n</b> (dry-run) option first for complex operations.


title: WILDCARD SYNTAX
content:
<i>mmv</i> uses a specific set of wildcards in its <i>source_pattern</i>:<br><b>*</b>: Matches any string of zero or more characters.<br><b>?</b>: Matches any single character.<br><b>[</b>...<b>]</b>: Matches any single character within the specified set (e.g., <b>[abc]</b>, <b>[0-9]</b>).<br><b>_</b>: Matches the empty string. This is typically used to ensure a specific part of a pattern is present but matches nothing.<br><br>For the <i>target_pattern</i>, <i>mmv</i> uses numbered wildcards like <b>#1</b>, <b>#2</b>, etc., which correspond to the text matched by the 1st, 2nd, etc., wildcard (<b>*</b>, <b>?</b>, <b>[</b>...<b>]</b>) in the <i>source_pattern</i>. For example, <b>'*.txt' '#1.bak'</b> would rename 'file.txt' to 'file.bak'.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mmv</i> is a long-standing utility in the Unix/Linux ecosystem, part of the <i>mmv</i> package. It was designed to provide robust pattern-based file manipulation, often predating or complementing other tools like the Perl-based <i>rename</i> utility. Its unique '#' wildcard syntax for capturing and re-using matched parts of filenames distinguishes it from standard shell globbing or regular expressions.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-S, --start-server</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts the MOC server daemon if it's not already running.<br><br><b>-s, --stop-server</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shuts down the MOC server daemon gracefully.<br><br><b>-x, --exit</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exits the MOC client interface, leaving the server running.<br><br><b>-p, --play</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts playing music from the current position in the playlist.<br><br><b>-f, --next</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Skips to the next track in the current playlist.<br><br><b>-r, --previous</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Plays the previous track in the playlist.<br><br><b>-t, --toggle-pause</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Toggles between playing and pausing the current track.<br><br><b>-k, --seek <I>TIME</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Seeks within the current track. <I>TIME</I> can be <I>+N</I>, <I>-N</I> (seconds), or <I>N%</I>.<br><br><b>-v, --volume <I>LEVEL</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the volume. <I>LEVEL</I> can be <I>+N</I>, <I>-N</I> (percentage change), or <I>N</I> (absolute percentage).<br><br><b>-M, --mute</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Toggles mute/unmute for the audio output.<br><br><b>-c, --clear</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Clears all entries from the current playlist.<br><br><b>-a, --append [<I>FILE</I>|<I>DIR</I>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Appends specified files or directories to the playlist.<br><br><b>-q, --enqueue [<I>FILE</I>|<I>DIR</I>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds specified files or directories to the end of the playlist.<br><br><b>-P, --playlist <I>FILE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Loads a specified playlist file (<I>.m3u, .pls</I>).<br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the help message with available options.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
MOC (Music On Console) is a powerful and lightweight <b>ncurses-based</b> console audio player for Unix-like systems. It features a simple two-panel interface, typically showing a file browser on one side and a playlist on the other. MOC supports a wide array of audio formats including <I>Ogg Vorbis, FLAC, MP3, WAV</I>, and can also play streams. Its distinctive feature is its <b>client-server architecture</b>: the actual player is a daemon (<code>mocd</code>) that runs in the background, while the user interacts with a client (<code>mocp</code>). This design allows music to continue playing even after the terminal is closed, and enables multiple clients to control the same server instance. MOC is renowned for its low resource consumption, clean interface, and stability, making it a favorite among command-line enthusiasts.


title: CAVEATS
content:
MOC primarily operates through its daemon (<code>mocd</code>). If the daemon is not running, the client (<code>mocp</code>) will attempt to start it by default for most operations, but direct control requires the daemon to be active. Being a terminal-based player, it lacks a graphical user interface (GUI) and relies on <I>ncurses</I> for its interactive mode. Audio backend support depends on system configuration (e.g., ALSA, PulseAudio).


title: CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE
content:
MOC's core design involves two components:<br>1. <b><code>mocd</code></b>: The MOC daemon, which runs in the background and handles all audio playback.<br>2. <b><code>mocp</code></b>: The MOC client, which is the user interface for controlling the daemon. This separation ensures continuous playback and allows for remote control and background operation.


title: CONFIGURATION AND KEYBINDINGS
content:
MOC is highly customizable through its configuration files located in <I>~/.moc/</I>. The main configuration file is <I>~/.moc/config</I>, where users can adjust various settings like audio output, themes, and behavior. Keybindings can be modified in <I>~/.moc/keymap</I>, allowing users to personalize keyboard shortcuts for player control.


title: HISTORY
content:
MOC was first released in 2004 by Damian Pietras. Its development was driven by the desire for a minimalist, resource-efficient, and robust console audio player. The introduction of its client-server architecture, separating the player daemon (<code>mocd</code>) from the interactive client (<code>mocp</code>), was a significant innovation. This design allowed users to close their terminal window without stopping music playback, and facilitated remote control. MOC quickly became a popular choice among Linux users who favored command-line tools, establishing itself as a reliable and stable audio player in the terminal environment. While development pace has varied, it remains a well-regarded tool.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
Installation: <br><b>npm install -g mocha</b> <br><br>Usage: <br><b>mocha [options] [files/directories]</b>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--require &lt;file&gt; / -r &lt;file&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a module to be required before tests run, useful for transpilation or configuration.<br><br><b>--timeout &lt;ms&gt; / -t &lt;ms&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the timeout in milliseconds for tests; tests exceeding this time will fail. Default is 2000ms.<br><br><b>--grep &lt;pattern&gt; / -g &lt;pattern&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Runs only tests whose titles match the given regular expression pattern.<br><br><b>--fgrep &lt;string&gt; / -f &lt;string&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Runs only tests whose titles contain the given string.<br><br><b>--watch / -w</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Watches test files and automatically re-runs tests on changes.<br><br><b>--reporter &lt;name&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the test reporter to use (e.g., <i>spec</i>, <i>dot</i>, <i>nyan</i>, <i>json</i>, <i>list</i>).<br><br><b>--bail</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Aborts testing after the first test failure.<br><br><b>--recursive</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Searches for test files recursively within specified directories.<br><br><b>--exit</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces Mocha to exit after all tests complete, useful when tests leave event loops open.<br><br><b>--full-trace</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays full stack traces for test failures.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>Mocha</i> is a feature-rich <i>JavaScript</i> test framework designed to run tests in both <i>Node.js</i> and the browser. It provides a clean, flexible, and simple API for writing tests, making it a popular choice for developers. Key features include support for asynchronous testing, various test lifecycle hooks (<i>before</i>, <i>after</i>, <i>beforeEach</i>, <i>afterEach</i>), test retries, and a wide array of built-in and custom reporters for visualizing test results. Unlike many core <i>Linux</i> commands, <i>Mocha</i> is not a native system utility but rather a program executed via the <i>Node.js</i> runtime environment. It is typically installed and managed using the <i>Node Package Manager</i> (<i>npm</i>) within a development project or globally on a system to allow command-line invocation. Its flexibility in handling different testing styles (BDD, TDD) and its extensibility through plugins make it a powerful tool for ensuring code quality in <i>JavaScript</i> applications.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>Mocha</i> is a <i>JavaScript</i> framework and <b>not</b> a standalone <i>Linux</i> utility. It requires <i>Node.js</i> and <i>npm</i> to be installed on your system. It functions by executing <i>JavaScript</i> test files within the <i>Node.js</i> runtime. Therefore, its availability and behavior depend on the <i>Node.js</i> environment, not the underlying <i>Linux</i> distribution's core commands.


title: TEST REPORTERS
content:
<i>Mocha</i> supports a variety of built-in test reporters that determine how test results are displayed in the console. Common reporters include <i>spec</i> (default, human-readable hierarchy), <i>dot</i> (minimalist dots for each test), <i>nyan</i> (a whimsical cat animation), <i>json</i> (machine-readable output), and <i>list</i> (a detailed list of test titles). Users can also create custom reporters or use third-party ones to tailor the output to their specific needs, enhancing debuggability and integration with CI/CD systems.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>Mocha</i> was created by <i>TJ Holowaychuk</i> and first released in <i>November 2011</i>. It quickly gained popularity as a robust and flexible testing framework for <i>JavaScript</i>, particularly known for its excellent handling of asynchronous code and its extensibility. Since its inception, it has been actively maintained and developed by a dedicated community, adapting to new <i>JavaScript</i> features and evolving testing paradigms. Its design philosophy emphasizes simplicity, speed, and comprehensive reporting.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mocp</b> [<i>OPTION</i>...] [<i>FILE/DIRECTORY</i>...]<br><b>mocp</b> {<i>-S|-C|-x|-q|-D</i>} [<i>OPTION</i>...]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-S</b>, <b>--server</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts the MOC server process in the background. The client will connect to this instance.<br><br><b><b>-C</b>, <b>--client</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts the MOC client (default behavior). This is the interactive <i>ncurses</i> interface.<br><br><b><b>-x</b>, <b>--exit</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exits the <i>mocp</i> client interface. The server continues playing music.<br><br><b><b>-q</b>, <b>--quit</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Quits the MOC server process, stopping all playback and freeing resources.<br><br><b><b>-p</b>, <b>--play</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts playing the current song in the playlist, or plays the specified file/directory.<br><br><b><b>-P</b>, <b>--pause</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pauses the current playback of the MOC server.<br><br><b><b>-s</b>, <b>--stop</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Stops the current playback on the MOC server.<br><br><b><b>-u</b>, <b>--unpause</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Unpauses playback if it was previously paused by the server.<br><br><b><b>-f</b>, <b>--next</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Plays the next song in the current playlist.<br><br><b><b>-r</b>, <b>--previous</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Plays the previous song in the current playlist.<br><br><b><b>-a</b>, <b>--append</b> <i>&lt;FILE&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Appends specified files or directories to the current playlist of the MOC server.<br><br><b><b>-c</b>, <b>--clear</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Clears the current playlist on the MOC server.<br><br><b><b>-t</b>, <b>--theme</b> <i>&lt;theme_name&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the user interface theme for the MOC client from available themes.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version information of <i>mocp</i>.<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows a summary of command-line options and usage.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mocp</i> (Music On Console Player) is a powerful, lightweight, and user-friendly audio player designed for the Linux/Unix command-line environment. It utilizes the <i>ncurses</i> library to provide an interactive, text-based interface. A distinctive feature of <i>mocp</i> is its client-server architecture: the server component runs in the background, managing playback, while the client connects to it to control music, browse files, and manage playlists. This design allows music to continue playing even after the terminal is closed, and enables control from multiple terminal sessions or remotely. <i>mocp</i> supports a wide range of audio formats including MP3, Ogg Vorbis, FLAC, and WAV, leveraging libraries like <i>ffmpeg</i>. It's known for its minimal resource consumption, fast startup, and features like gapless playback and themes.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mocp</i> is exclusively a terminal-based application, requiring familiarity with command-line environments. Its client-server architecture, while offering powerful background playback capabilities, can initially be unintuitive for users accustomed to single-process media players. Advanced configurations often necessitate manual editing of text files within the user's <i>~/.moc</i> directory. It has limited support for modern streaming services or advanced audio digital signal processing (DSP) features compared to some other players.


title: CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE
content:
<i>mocp</i> functions using a client-server model. The <b>MOC server</b> runs as a daemon process in the background, responsible for managing the audio playback, handling file operations, and maintaining the playlist. The <b>MOC client</b> is the interactive <i>ncurses</i> user interface that connects to this server. This architectural separation allows music to continue playing seamlessly even if the client terminal is closed or disconnected. It also enables multiple clients to connect and control the same server instance, or even remote control via SSH.


title: CONFIGURATION FILES
content:
User-specific configuration for <i>mocp</i> is primarily managed through plain text files located in the <i>~/.moc</i> directory within the user's home directory. The main configuration file is <i>~/.moc/config</i>, where global settings and backend options are defined. Keyboard shortcuts can be customized in <i>~/.moc/keymap</i>, and user-defined interface themes are stored in <i>~/.moc/themes/</i>. These files are straightforward to edit with any standard text editor, allowing for extensive personalization of <i>mocp</i>'s behavior and appearance.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mocp</i>, an acronym for 'Music On Console Player,' was originally developed by Peter Olszewski. It emerged around the mid-2000s, quickly gaining recognition as a lightweight and efficient command-line music player. Its appeal lies in its minimal resource consumption and robust feature set delivered through an <i>ncurses</i> interface, making it a favorite among Linux users who prefer a terminal-centric workflow. Over the years, its development has focused on stability, performance, and expanding audio format support.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--debug, -d</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Enable verbose debug output to the console.</I><br><br><b>--log-level=<I>LEVEL</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Set the logging level to INFO, WARN, ERR, or DBG.</I><br><br><b>--disable-auto-suspend</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Prevent modems from automatically suspending when inactive.</I><br><br><b>--filter-policy=<I>POLICY</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Set the device filtering policy. Policies include 'strict', 'loose', or 'disabled'.</I><br><br><b>--config-dir=<I>DIR</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Specify an alternative directory for configuration files.</I><br><br><b>--no-auto-enable</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Do not automatically enable detected modems upon startup.</I><br><br><b>--no-daemon</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Do not fork into the background; run in the foreground.</I><br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Show ModemManager version information and exit.</I><br><br><b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Show this help message and exit.</I><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<I>ModemManager</I> is a system D-Bus service that provides a high-level, unified API for interacting with mobile broadband (2G/3G/4G/5G) modems. Its primary purpose is to abstract away the complexities of various modem protocols (like AT commands, QMI, and MBIM) and allow applications, such as <I>NetworkManager</I>, to easily manage cellular connections.<br><br><I>ModemManager</I> handles a comprehensive set of functions including modem detection, initialization, PIN unlocking, network registration, and establishing data connections (e.g., PPP, QMI, MBIM). Beyond data, it also supports SMS sending/receiving, USSD requests, and voice call management, depending on the modem's capabilities. It integrates seamlessly with the Linux desktop environment, enabling users to connect to mobile networks without manual configuration.<br><br>By providing a standardized interface, <I>ModemManager</I> ensures reliable and consistent modem functionality across a wide range of hardware and different network types, making mobile broadband usage more accessible and user-friendly on Linux systems. It is typically run as a background daemon, with users interacting through client tools like <I>mmcli</I> or through the <I>NetworkManager</I> graphical interface.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li><I>Relies heavily on <B>udev</B> for modem detection and device management; incorrect <B>udev</B> rules can prevent modems from being recognized.</I></li><li><I>Some modems may require specific firmware or kernel modules that are not universally supported or pre-installed.</I></li><li><I>Conflicts can arise if other modem management software (e.g., <B>wvdial</B> or manual <B>pppd</B> setups) attempts to control the same modem simultaneously.</I></li><li><I>Requires appropriate D-Bus permissions for client applications to interact with it.</I></li></ul>


title: D-BUS INTERFACE
content:
<I>ModemManager</I> exposes its comprehensive functionality via a D-Bus interface. This allows other system components and user applications to programmatically query modem status, initiate connections, send SMS messages, perform USSD requests, and manage voice calls without needing to understand the underlying modem protocols.


title: UDEV INTEGRATION
content:
Critical to its operation, <I>ModemManager</I> relies heavily on <B>udev</B> rules. These rules enable the daemon to automatically detect newly connected modems, identify their capabilities, and apply the correct drivers and configurations, ensuring seamless plug-and-play functionality for mobile broadband devices.


title: CONFIGURATION FILES
content:
The behavior of <I>ModemManager</I> can be customized through configuration files, typically found in <B>/etc/ModemManager</B> or <B>/usr/lib/ModemManager</B>. These files allow system administrators to define specific modem blacklists or whitelists, adjust polling intervals, and fine-tune driver settings to optimize modem performance and compatibility for particular hardware or network environments.


title: HISTORY
content:
<I>ModemManager</I> was developed by the <I>NetworkManager</I> team to address the growing need for a standardized, robust way to interact with mobile broadband modems on Linux. Introduced as a dedicated service, it aimed to centralize and simplify modem control, moving away from diverse, vendor-specific tools and ad-hoc scripts. This allowed <I>NetworkManager</I> to focus on network connection management while offloading the complexities of modem hardware and protocols to <I>ModemManager</I>.<br><br>Its development has continuously integrated support for new modem technologies (like 4G LTE and 5G) and improved compatibility with a vast range of hardware, making mobile broadband more accessible and reliable across different Linux distributions and desktop environments.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>modinfo</b> [<i>options</i>] <i>module_name</i> | <b>-F</b> <i>field_name</i><br><b>modinfo</b> [<i>options</i>] <b>-k</b> <i>kernel_version</i> <i>module_name</i><br><b>modinfo</b> [<i>options</i>] <i>/path/to/module.ko</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-a</b>, <b>--author</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the author of the module.<br><br><b><b>-d</b>, <b>--description</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows a brief description of the module's purpose.<br><br><b><b>-l</b>, <b>--license</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the license under which the module is distributed.<br><br><b><b>-p</b>, <b>--parameters</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lists all available module parameters (options) and their descriptions, types, and default values.<br><br><b><b>-n</b>, <b>--filename</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs the absolute path to the module file.<br><br><b><b>-F</b> <i>field</i>, <b>--field=</b><i>field</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the value of a specific field (e.g., <i>alias</i>, <i>depends</i>, <i>retpoline</i>). Use <i>modinfo -F list</i> to see all possible fields.<br><br><b><b>-k</b> <i>kernel_version</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the kernel version for which to retrieve module information, useful when inspecting modules for a different kernel.<br><br><b><b>-b</b> <i>basedir</i>, <b>--basedir=</b><i>basedir</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative base directory for modules (e.g., <i>/lib/modules/</i>), overriding the default.<br><br><b><b>-V</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the <i>modinfo</i> utility version.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>modinfo</i> is a command-line utility used to extract and display metadata embedded within a Linux kernel module (<i>.ko</i> file). It can reveal various attributes such as the module's filename, author, license, description, aliases, dependencies, and available parameters. This information is crucial for system administrators and developers to understand a module's purpose, its operational requirements, and how to interact with it, for example, by loading it with specific options. Unlike <i>lsmod</i>, which lists currently loaded modules, <i>modinfo</i> reads metadata directly from the module file on the filesystem, making it useful for inspecting modules even before they are loaded into the kernel. It's an indispensable tool for debugging module issues and ensuring proper system configuration.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>modinfo</i> operates on module files found on the filesystem; it does not directly query a running kernel. The amount and detail of information displayed depend on the metadata embedded by the module developer. Some older or less maintained modules might provide minimal details.


title: MODULE FIELDS
content:
Beyond the common parameters, <i>modinfo</i> can display numerous internal module fields vital for debugging and understanding module behavior. These include <i>alias</i> (alternative names), <i>depends</i> (other modules it relies on), <i>srcversion</i> (source code version), <i>vermagic</i> (kernel version magic string), <i>firmware</i> (required firmware files), <i>retpoline</i> (Spectre vulnerability mitigation status), and <i>rhelversion</i> (for Red Hat specific builds).


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>modinfo</i> has been a fundamental utility in Linux for examining kernel modules since the early days of the `module-init-tools` package. It is now part of the `kmod` project, which manages kernel module utilities. Its core functionality has remained consistent, providing essential introspection capabilities for system administrators and developers.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>modprobe</b> [<i>options</i>] <i>modulename</i><br><b>modprobe</b> [<i>options</i>] <b>-r</b> <i>modulename</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-r</b>, <b>--remove</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Remove a module. <i>modprobe</i> will also remove dependent modules if they are no longer in use.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print messages about the actions being taken, useful for debugging.<br><br><b><b>-f</b>, <b>--force</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force loading or unloading, ignoring version mismatches or if a module is in use. Use with extreme caution as it can destabilize the system.<br><br><b><b>-n</b>, <b>--dry-run</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Don't actually insert or remove the module, just print what would happen.<br><br><b><b>-D</b>, <b>--show-depends</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show the dependencies of a module without actually loading it.<br><br><b><b>-a</b>, <b>--all</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Load all modules matching the module name specified. Useful for loading multiple aliases.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>modprobe</i> is a Linux command-line utility used for intelligently adding and removing modules from the Linux kernel. Unlike the lower-level <i>insmod</i> and <i>rmmod</i> commands, <i>modprobe</i> understands module dependencies. When asked to load a module, it automatically loads all necessary prerequisite modules first. Similarly, when removing a module, it ensures that dependent modules are also unloaded if they are no longer in use by other parts of the system.<br><br><i>modprobe</i> consults configuration files located in <i>/etc/modprobe.d/</i> and the module dependency database generated by <i>depmod</i> (typically in <i>/lib/modules/&lt;kernel-version&gt;/modules.dep.bin</i>). This intelligent dependency resolution makes <i>modprobe</i> the preferred tool for managing kernel modules, simplifying the process for administrators and scripts. Additionally, it supports module blacklisting, aliasing, and passing kernel module parameters, offering a comprehensive solution for dynamic kernel configuration.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li>Requires root privileges to execute.</li><li>Using <b>--force</b> can lead to system instability or crashes.</li><li>Relies on an up-to-date module dependency file (generated by <i>depmod</i>); outdated files can cause incorrect behavior.</li><li>Module changes made by <i>modprobe</i> are typically not persistent across reboots unless configured via system-level configuration files.</li></ul>


title: CONFIGURATION FILES
content:
<i>modprobe</i> utilizes configuration files located primarily in <i>/etc/modprobe.d/</i> (and <i>/lib/modprobe.d/</i>). These files allow administrators to define module aliases, specify options to be passed to modules at load time, blacklist modules to prevent them from loading, and set up pre/post-install/remove commands. This mechanism provides granular control over module behavior and system-wide module policies.


title: MODULE SEARCH PATH AND DATABASE
content:
By default, <i>modprobe</i> searches for modules within <i>/lib/modules/$(uname -r)/kernel/</i>, corresponding to the currently running kernel version. It heavily relies on the <i>modules.dep.bin</i> file, which is a binary representation of module dependencies generated by <i>depmod</i>, to intelligently resolve and load all necessary modules in the correct order.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>modprobe</i> is part of the <i>kmod</i> tools suite, which succeeded the older <i>module-init-tools</i> package. It has evolved to provide more robust and secure kernel module management, particularly in handling dependencies and aliases. Its design aims to automate and simplify the complex task of dynamically configuring the Linux kernel through module loading and unloading, integrating seamlessly with modern Linux distributions.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>avail</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lists all available modulefiles in the configured search paths.<br><br><b>list</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays all modulefiles currently loaded into the user's environment.<br><br><b>load <I>modulefile</I>...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Loads one or more specified modulefiles, applying their environment modifications.<br><br><b>unload <I>modulefile</I>...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Unloads one or more specified modulefiles, reverting their environment modifications.<br><br><b>swap <I>old_module</I> <I>new_module</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Atomically unloads the <I>old_module</I> and loads the <I>new_module</I>.<br><br><b>show <I>modulefile</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the contents and intended environment changes of a modulefile without actually loading it.<br><br><b>purge</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Unloads all currently loaded modulefiles from the environment.<br><br><b>help [ <I>modulefile</I> ]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides help information about the <b>module</b> command itself or about a specific modulefile.<br><br><b>use <I>directory</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds <I>directory</I> to the <B>MODULEPATH</B>, allowing modulefiles in that directory to be found.<br><br><b>unuse <I>directory</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Removes <I>directory</I> from the <B>MODULEPATH</B>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>module</b> command is part of the <I>Environment Modules</I> package, a tool designed to simplify the management of a user's shell environment. It allows for the dynamic modification of environment variables such as <b>PATH</b>, <b>LD_LIBRARY_PATH</b>, <b>MANPATH</b>, etc., without the need for manual configuration. This is particularly useful in environments where multiple versions of software or libraries exist (e.g., HPC clusters, research labs) and users need to switch between them easily. Instead of modifying shell startup scripts directly, users load or unload pre-defined "modulefiles," which are scripts that define how to set up the environment for a particular software package or version. This approach promotes reproducibility, reduces configuration errors, and allows for clean switching between different software stacks, making complex software landscapes manageable and accessible.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The <b>module</b> command is typically implemented as a shell function or script sourced into the user's environment, rather than a standalone executable. This means its availability and exact behavior depend on the 'Environment Modules' package being installed and properly initialized in the user's shell startup files. It is most commonly found and utilized in shared computing environments like High-Performance Computing (HPC) clusters or academic labs.


title: MODULEFILES
content:
<I>Modulefiles</I> are the core of the <B>module</B> system. They are typically plain-text scripts (often written in Tcl, but also Lua or other languages) that define how to modify the user's environment (e.g., adding paths to <B>PATH</B>, setting specific environment variables) for a particular software package or version. Administrators create and maintain these files to provide users with curated software stacks.


title: MODULEPATH
content:
The <B>module</B> command searches for modulefiles in directories specified by the <B>MODULEPATH</B> environment variable. This variable contains a colon-separated list of directories. Users can extend this path using the <B>module use</B> subcommand, allowing them to access modulefiles in custom or project-specific locations.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <I>Environment Modules</I> package, which provides the <b>module</b> command, was developed by John L. Furlong at the Ohio Supercomputer Center (OSC) in the early 1990s. It was created to address the challenges of managing multiple software versions and dependencies in shared computing environments. Its effectiveness and flexibility have led to its widespread adoption, making it a de facto standard for environment management in many scientific and research computing facilities.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-n, --no-hist</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Disables the use of a history file. No command history will be saved or loaded.</I><br><br><b>-w, --no-wrap</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Prevents automatic word wrapping in the editor window, displaying long lines as a single line.</I><br><br><b>-s, --no-smart</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Disables smart indentation, which automatically adds indentation based on context (e.g., after an opening brace).</I><br><br><b>-b, --backups</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Enables the creation of backup files (e.g., filename~). A backup of the original file is created before saving changes.</I><br><br><b>-c, --color</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Forces <i>moe</i> to use color output, even if it detects a monochrome terminal.</I><br><br><b>-m, --mono</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Forces <i>moe</i> to use monochrome (black and white) output, overriding any color detection.</I><br><br><b>-i, --ignore</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Instructs <i>moe</i> to ignore errors encountered while processing the history file.</I><br><br><b>-v, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Displays the version information of the <i>moe</i> editor and then exits.</I><br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Shows a summary of command-line options and keybindings, then exits.</I><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>moe</i>, standing for "My Own Editor," is a small, easy-to-use console-based text editor designed for quick and simple file editing. It aims to provide an intuitive user experience with CUA (Common User Access) style keybindings, making it accessible to users familiar with common GUI text editors. Built using the <b>ncurses</b> library, <i>moe</i> operates entirely within the terminal, offering features like syntax highlighting (if supported by terminal), word wrap, smart indent, and search/replace functionality. Its minimal design and small footprint make it an excellent choice for system administrators or users who need to perform quick edits on remote servers or low-resource environments without the overhead of more complex editors like <b>Vim</b> or <b>Emacs</b>.


title: CAVEATS
content:
While <i>moe</i> is simple and easy to use, it lacks advanced features found in more comprehensive editors like macro recording, integrated shell commands, or extensive plugin support. Its CUA-style keybindings might feel unfamiliar to users accustomed to <b>Vim</b> or <b>Emacs</b>. For complex programming tasks or large projects, other editors may be more suitable.


title: KEYBINDINGS
content:
<i>moe</i> largely follows CUA (Common User Access) keybindings, making it intuitive for users familiar with desktop text editors. Common operations include:<br><b>Ctrl+S</b>: Save file<br><b>Ctrl+X</b>: Exit editor<br><b>Ctrl+F</b>: Find text<br><b>Ctrl+R</b>: Replace text<br><b>Ctrl+A</b>: Select all<br><b>Ctrl+C</b>: Copy selected text<br><b>Ctrl+V</b>: Paste text<br><b>Ctrl+Z</b>: Undo<br><b>Ctrl+Y</b>: Redo<br>A comprehensive list is usually available by pressing <b>Ctrl+H</b> or using the <b>-h</b> command-line option.


title: CONFIGURATION FILE
content:
<i>moe</i> can be customized via a configuration file located at <b>~/.moerc</b>. This file allows users to set default options, such as enabling word wrap, smart indent, or backup creation, removing the need to specify them on the command line every time.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>moe</i> was developed by Michael Gruenwald with the goal of creating a minimalistic, yet highly usable, text editor for the terminal. It emerged as an alternative to more complex and often resource-intensive editors, focusing on simplicity, speed, and adherence to Common User Access (CUA) keybindings. This design philosophy aimed to provide an intuitive experience for users transitioning from GUI environments or those who prefer a less steep learning curve compared to traditional Unix editors.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-resize</b> <I>WxH</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Resizes the image to the specified width (<I>W</I>) and height (<I>H</I>). Appending '!' forces exact dimensions, '>' resizes only if larger, '<' resizes only if smaller.<br><br><b><b>-rotate</b> <I>degrees</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Rotates the image by the specified <I>degrees</I>. A positive value rotates clockwise.<br><br><b><b>-format</b> <I>type</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Changes the image format to the specified <I>type</I> (e.g., JPEG, PNG, GIF). The original file extension will be updated.<br><br><b><b>-quality</b> <I>value</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the compression <I>quality</I> (0-100) for lossy formats like JPEG. Higher values mean better quality but larger file sizes.<br><br><b><b>-strip</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Strips the image of any profiles, comments, and non-essential metadata, typically reducing file size.<br><br><b><b>-auto-orient</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Automatically rotates the image to its correct orientation based on EXIF data, common in photos taken with digital cameras.<br><br><b><b>-path</b> <I>directory</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Writes the modified image to the specified <I>directory</I> instead of overwriting the original file in its current location. This is a common safety measure.<br><br><b><b>-verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints detailed information about the image processing operations to standard output.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <i>mogrify</i> command is a powerful utility from the <b>ImageMagick</b> suite, designed for modifying images directly and in-place. Unlike its counterpart, <i>convert</i>, which creates a new image file as output, <i>mogrify</i> applies all specified operations to the original input file(s), overwriting them without prompting. This makes it particularly suitable for automating batch processing tasks, such as resizing entire directories of images, converting multiple files to a different format, or applying the same artistic effect across numerous pictures. Users can perform a wide array of transformations, including resizing, rotating, flipping, color adjustments, format conversions, and metadata stripping. Its efficiency in modifying images without generating intermediate files or requiring explicit output filenames streamlines workflows for web developers, photographers, and system administrators. However, its in-place nature means operations are irreversible by default, necessitating caution and often prior backups of original files.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The primary caveat of <i>mogrify</i> is its destructive nature: it modifies images <b>in-place</b>, overwriting the original files. There is no built-in 'undo' function. Therefore, it is strongly recommended to:<br>1. <b>Backup original files</b> before running <i>mogrify</i> on critical data.<br>2. Test commands on a <b>copy</b> of the images first.<br>3. Use the <b>-path</b> option to write modified images to a different directory, effectively turning it into a non-destructive operation similar to <i>convert</i>, but with <i>mogrify</i>'s batch processing capabilities.


title: <I>MOGRIFY</I> VS <I>CONVERT</I>
content:
The fundamental difference between <i>mogrify</i> and <i>convert</i> (also part of ImageMagick) lies in how they handle output. <i>mogrify</i> modifies the input image file(s) <b>in-place</b>, overwriting the original. In contrast, <i>convert</i> requires an explicit output filename and creates a <b>new image file</b>, leaving the original intact. While <i>convert</i> is safer for single-image transformations due to its non-destructive nature, <i>mogrify</i> excels in batch processing scenarios where the intent is to update a large number of images directly.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>Mogrify</i> is an integral part of the widely acclaimed <b>ImageMagick</b> software suite, which was first publicly released in 1990. Developed by John Cristy, ImageMagick provides a comprehensive set of tools for creating, editing, composing, or converting bitmap images. <i>Mogrify</i> emerged as a specialized utility within this suite, offering the unique capability of applying image transformations directly to the source files, serving the need for efficient batch processing where creating new output files for every transformation would be cumbersome or inefficient. Its development has paralleled that of the broader ImageMagick project, continuously evolving to support new image formats and processing algorithms.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b><i>-resize <I>WxH</I></i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Resizes the image. Dimensions can be absolute (e.g., 640x480) or percentage (e.g., 50%).</i></b><br><br><b><b><i>-format <I>type</I></i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Converts the image to the specified format (e.g., `jpeg`, `png`, `gif`).</i></b><br><br><b><b><i>-rotate <I>degrees</I></i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Rotates the image by the specified degrees.</i></b><br><br><b><b><i>-quality <I>value</I></i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Sets the compression level for formats like JPEG (0-100, higher is better quality).</i></b><br><br><b><b><i>-strip</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Removes image profiles and comments, reducing file size.</i></b><br><br><b><b><i>-auto-orient</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Automatically rotates the image based on EXIF orientation tag.</i></b><br><br><b><b><i>-path <I>directory</I></i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Writes the modified image to the specified directory instead of overwriting in place.</i></b><br><br><b><b><i>-monochrome</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Converts the image to black and white.</i></b><br><br><b><b><i>-modulate <I>brightness</I>,<I>saturation</I>,<I>hue</I></i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Adjusts brightness, saturation, and hue of the image.</i></b><br><br><b><b><i>-verbose</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b><i>Enables verbose output, showing details of the image processing.</i></b><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b><i>The `mogrify.im6` command is a powerful utility from the ImageMagick 6 suite designed for in-place modification of image files. Unlike `convert`, which creates a new image file, `mogrify` directly overwrites the original image with the modified version. This makes it efficient for batch processing where disk space is a concern or when the original files are no longer needed.<br><br>It supports a vast array of image manipulation operations, including resizing, rotating, flipping, converting image formats, applying various visual effects (like blurring, sharpening, color adjustments), adding watermarks, and optimizing images. The `.im6` suffix specifically indicates that this command is part of the ImageMagick version 6 binaries, which is important for compatibility as ImageMagick 7 introduced some changes in syntax and default behaviors. Users should exercise caution due to its destructive nature, ideally working on backups or in a test environment.</i></b>


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b><i><br><b>In-Place Modification:</b> `mogrify.im6` overwrites original files. <I>Always back up important images before using it.</I><br><b>ImageMagick Version:</b> The `.im6` suffix denotes ImageMagick version 6. Syntax and behavior might differ from ImageMagick 7 (`magick mogrify`).<br><b>Performance:</b> For very large batches or high-resolution images, processing can be resource-intensive and time-consuming.</i></b>


title: <B><I>SAFETY PRACTICES</I></B>
content:
<b><i>Due to `mogrify.im6`'s destructive nature, it's highly recommended to either work on copies of your images or use the `-path` option to save modified files to a different directory. This prevents accidental loss of original data.</i></b>


title: <B><I>DISTINCTION FROM `CONVERT`</I></B>
content:
<b><i>While `mogrify.im6` modifies images in place, `convert.im6` (or `magick convert` in IM7) creates a new image file, leaving the original untouched. Choose `mogrify` for batch overwrites and `convert` for creating new versions or formats.</i></b>


title: HISTORY
content:
<b><i>ImageMagick, the software suite `mogrify` belongs to, began development in 1987. `mogrify` has been a core utility within the suite for many years, providing a powerful command-line interface for batch image processing. The explicit `mogrify.im6` naming usually signifies a system where ImageMagick version 6 binaries are installed alongside or separately from newer versions (like ImageMagick 7), allowing users to specifically invoke the older version for compatibility or specific behavior. This often occurs on systems that support multiple ImageMagick installations or where packages provide versioned binaries.</i></b>


title: SEE ALSO
content:
<b><i>convert(1)</i></b>, <b><i>identify(1)</i></b>, <b><i>display(1)</i></b>, <b><i>magick(1)</i></b>, <b><i>composite(1)</i></b>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--list-new</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lists keys pending enrollment in the MOK database.<br><br><b><b>--list-old</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lists keys pending deletion from the MOK database.<br><br><b><b>--list-enrolled</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lists keys currently enrolled in the MOK database.<br><br><b><b>--import</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Stages certificate(s) from <I>file</I> for import into the MOK database. Requires reboot and user confirmation.<br><br><b><b>--delete</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Stages certificate(s) from <I>file</I> for deletion from the MOK database. Requires reboot and user confirmation.<br><br><b><b>--reset</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Stages the MOK database for a complete reset (clearing all entries). Requires reboot and user confirmation.<br><br><b><b>--revoke-offline</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Attempts to revoke all MOK entries and temporarily disable Secure Boot. Use with caution.<br><br><b><b>--pk-auth</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs PK (Platform Key) authentication for Secure Boot bypass.<br><br><b><b>--disable-bgrt</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables the Boot Graphics Resource Table (BGRT) display.<br><br><b><b>--enable-bgrt</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables the Boot Graphics Resource Table (BGRT) display.<br><br><b><b>--set-verbosity</b> <i>&lt;level&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the verbosity level (0-3) for mokutil operations.<br><br><b><b>--set-default-key</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the default key file for MOK operations.<br><br><b><b>--export-key</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exports the default key used by mokutil.<br><br><b><b>--test-key</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Tests a key from <I>file</I> against the MOK database.<br><br><b><b>--sb-state</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the current Secure Boot state (enabled or disabled).<br><br><b><b>--disk-import</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Imports keys from disk, typically from removable media.<br><br><b><b>--timeout</b> <i>&lt;seconds&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the timeout in seconds for the MOK confirmation screen during boot.<br><br><b><b>--ignore-dbx</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Ignores the DBX (Forbidden Signatures Database) during key checks.<br><br><b><b>--boot-next</b> <i>&lt;efi_path&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the next boot entry in the UEFI firmware's boot order.<br><br><b><b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output for more detailed information.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the help message and exits.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays version information and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mokutil</i> is a crucial utility for managing Machine Owner Keys (MOK) within a <I>UEFI Secure Boot</I> environment. Secure Boot is a security standard ensuring only software trusted by the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) or platform owner can boot. When enabled, only bootloaders and kernel modules signed with trusted keys can load.<br><br><i>mokutil</i> interacts with the <I>MOK list</I>, which extends the standard UEFI Secure Boot DB (Database) and DBX (Forbidden Signatures Database). It enables users to import new keys (e.g., for custom-signed kernels or modules), delete existing keys, and reset the MOK list. These operations typically require a system reboot and user interaction in the UEFI pre-boot environment to confirm changes, ensuring security. <i>mokutil</i> is essential for users who want to run software not signed by Microsoft or their OEM while keeping Secure Boot enabled, bridging the gap for third-party drivers and custom Linux setups.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Most operations involving key enrollment or deletion (e.g., <b>--import</b>, <b>--delete</b>, <b>--reset</b>) require <i>root privileges</i> and a subsequent <i>system reboot</i>. During the reboot, the system will enter a special UEFI pre-boot screen (often blue) where you must manually confirm the pending MOK changes. This security measure prevents unauthorized manipulation of the MOK list. Incorrect use can potentially render the system unbootable if crucial keys are mishandled.


title: MOK LIST VS. UEFI DATABASES
content:
The MOK list managed by <i>mokutil</i> is distinct from the standard UEFI <I>DB</I> (authorized keys) and <I>DBX</I> (forbidden keys) databases. The <I>shim</I> bootloader, which is loaded by the UEFI firmware when Secure Boot is active, specifically checks the MOK list. This allows the system to trust additional keys without altering the firmware's core Secure Boot databases.


title: INTERACTIVE CONFIRMATION PROCESS
content:
When <i>mokutil</i> commands like <b>--import</b> or <b>--delete</b> are executed, changes are not immediately applied. Instead, they are staged. Upon the next system reboot, the <I>shim</I> bootloader intercepts the boot process and presents a graphical UEFI interface (often called 'MokManager' or 'Enroll MOK') where the user must manually confirm the pending key operations. This confirmation step is a critical security measure to ensure that only the legitimate system owner can modify the MOK list.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mokutil</i> emerged as a vital tool for Linux distributions to achieve compatibility with <I>UEFI Secure Boot</I>. Initially, Secure Boot primarily trusted keys pre-installed by the OEM (often Microsoft's key). To allow Linux systems to boot and use custom kernel modules or third-party drivers while Secure Boot remained enabled, the <I>shim</I> bootloader was developed. The <I>shim</I> is signed by Microsoft, and it, in turn, trusts keys present in the <I>Machine Owner Key (MOK)</I> list. <i>mokutil</i> was created to provide a command-line interface for managing this MOK list, enabling users to enroll their own keys. This development was crucial for distributions like Fedora and Ubuntu to support Secure Boot out-of-the-box, offering users a way to maintain security without disabling the feature for custom configurations.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>init</b> <I>[<role_name>]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Initializes a new Ansible role skeleton or a new scenario within an existing role, complete with default Molecule configuration files.<br><br><b><b>test</b> <I>[-s <scenario_name>]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes the full test sequence for a role or specific scenario. This typically includes linting, creating instances, converging the role, checking idempotence, verifying the outcome, and destroying the instances.<br><br><b><b>converge</b> <I>[-s <scenario_name>]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Runs the Ansible playbook specified in the scenario's <i>converge.yml</i>, applying the role to the test instance(s). This is a core step for applying the role's changes.<br><br><b><b>verify</b> <I>[-s <scenario_name>]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes the verification tests (e.g., Python Pytest scripts) defined in the scenario's <i>verify.yml</i>. This checks if the role achieved the expected state after convergence.<br><br><b><b>destroy</b> <I>[-s <scenario_name>]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Tears down and removes the test instance(s) provisioned for a given scenario, cleaning up the environment.<br><br><b><b>create</b> <I>[-s <scenario_name>]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provisions and starts the test instance(s) according to the scenario's configuration. This is often an implicit first step for <b>converge</b> or <b>test</b>.<br><br><b><b>lint</b> <I>[-s <scenario_name>]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs static analysis (linting) on the Ansible content and Molecule configuration files to identify potential issues and enforce coding standards.<br><br><b><b>login</b> <I>[<instance_name>] [-s <scenario_name>]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Establishes an SSH connection to a specific test instance, allowing for interactive debugging and inspection.<br><br><b><b>list</b> <I>[-s <scenario_name>]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a list of available scenarios, instances, or other relevant information within the current role directory.<br><br><b><b>-s <scenario_name></b> | <b>--scenario <scenario_name></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A global option to specify which particular scenario to operate on. If omitted, Molecule typically defaults to the <i>default</i> scenario.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>molecule</b> command is a powerful command-line utility designed to help test Ansible roles effectively and reproducibly. It ensures that roles are idempotent, function across various platforms, and behave as expected before deployment. Molecule achieves this by providing a structured approach to defining test scenarios, provisioning temporary test environments (using 'drivers' like Docker, Vagrant, or cloud providers), and orchestrating a sequence of testing steps. <br><br>These steps typically include linting Ansible content, creating virtual instances, converging the Ansible role on these instances, verifying the desired state (often using a Python-based test framework like Pytest), and finally destroying the test environment. By automating the entire testing lifecycle, Molecule significantly improves the quality and reliability of Ansible roles, accelerates development cycles, and provides developers with high confidence in their automation code.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>molecule</b> is not a standard Linux command bundled with most distributions. It requires Python and <b>pip</b> for installation. Its effective use also necessitates an understanding of Ansible, YAML, and typically a virtualization or containerization solution like Docker or Vagrant. Initial setup and configuration can have a learning curve.


title: DRIVERS
content:
Molecule uses 'drivers' to provision and manage the test environments. Common drivers include <b>docker</b> (for container-based testing), <b>vagrant</b> (for VM-based testing), <b>podman</b>, and various cloud drivers (e.g., <b>azure</b>, <b>ec2</b>, <b>openstack</b>) for testing roles in specific cloud environments. The chosen driver dictates how test instances are created and managed.


title: SCENARIOS
content:
A 'scenario' in Molecule defines a specific testing configuration for an Ansible role. A role can have multiple scenarios (e.g., 'default', 'centos7', 'ubuntu20-docker', 'cloud-test'). Each scenario has its own <i>molecule.yml</i> configuration file and associated playbooks/tests, allowing comprehensive testing across different operating systems, Python versions, or specific use cases without modifying the role itself.


title: HISTORY
content:
Initially developed as a community project to address the growing need for robust testing of Ansible roles, <b>molecule</b> gained significant traction due to its comprehensive approach to role verification. It was later adopted and further developed by Red Hat, becoming an official component of the Ansible ecosystem. Its evolution, particularly through versions 3 and 4, introduced greater flexibility in driver support (e.g., Docker, Podman, cloud providers) and a more modular scenario-based testing workflow, solidifying its position as the de facto standard for Ansible role testing.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mongo [options] [database] [script.js]</b> <br><br><i>Where:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>[options]</b>: Specifies connection, authentication, and execution parameters.<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>[database]</b>: The database to connect to upon startup. Defaults to 'test'.<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>[script.js]</b>: An optional JavaScript file to execute. The shell exits after execution unless <b>--shell</b> is specified.</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--host &lt;hostname&gt;</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the MongoDB host to connect to (default: localhost).</i><br><br><b><b>--port &lt;port&gt;</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the port to connect to (default: 27017).</i><br><br><b><b>-u &lt;username&gt;</b>, <b>--username &lt;username&gt;</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Provides the username for authentication.</i><br><br><b><b>-p &lt;password&gt;</b>, <b>--password &lt;password&gt;</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Provides the password for authentication. Will prompt if omitted.</i><br><br><b><b>--authenticationDatabase &lt;dbname&gt;</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the database where the user's credentials are defined.</i><br><br><b><b>--nodb</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Starts the shell without connecting to any database.</i><br><br><b><b>--shell</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keeps the shell open after executing a script file.</i><br><br><b><b>--eval &lt;javascript&gt;</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Executes a JavaScript expression and exits.</i><br><br><b><b>--quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Suppresses shell output during startup.</i><br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Displays the <b>mongo</b> shell version and exits.</i><br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Displays command-line help information.</i><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b><code>mongo</code></b> command was the primary command-line interface for interacting with MongoDB instances. It provided a JavaScript-based shell environment, allowing users to perform various operations directly against a MongoDB server. This included executing queries, performing administrative tasks such as creating and managing databases, collections, and users, and running JavaScript scripts for more complex operations or automation. <b><code>mongo</code></b> offered a direct and powerful way for developers and administrators to explore and manage their MongoDB data. It allowed for the execution of arbitrary JavaScript code, making it highly flexible for data manipulation and schema exploration. Prior to its deprecation, it was an indispensable tool in the MongoDB ecosystem for direct database access and scripting.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The <b><code>mongo</code></b> shell is <i>deprecated</i> since MongoDB 5.0. It is no longer actively developed or maintained by MongoDB. Users are strongly encouraged to migrate to <b><code>mongosh</code></b>, the modern MongoDB Shell, which offers enhanced features, improved user experience, and active development support. Continuing to use <b><code>mongo</code></b> may lead to compatibility issues with newer MongoDB server versions and lack support for new features.


title: <B>DEPRECATION NOTICE</B>
content:
<i>Users should be aware that the <b><code>mongo</code></b> shell is deprecated and no longer receives updates or support.</i>


title: <B>MIGRATION TO MONGOSH</B>
content:
<i>For all current and future MongoDB interactions, it is highly recommended to use <b><code>mongosh</code></b>. It provides superior features like syntax highlighting, intelligent autocompletion, improved error handling, and a more consistent API experience.</i>


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b><code>mongo</code></b> shell served as the foundational interactive tool for MongoDB from its early days. It was designed to provide a rich, JavaScript-powered environment for database operations, reflecting MongoDB's document-oriented and flexible data model. For many years, it was the primary way developers and administrators interacted directly with their MongoDB instances. Its development tracked MongoDB server releases, with features added to support new server capabilities. However, as MongoDB evolved, the need for a more robust, user-friendly, and extensible shell became apparent. This led to the development of <b><code>mongosh</code></b>, which was introduced as a successor. With the release of MongoDB 5.0, <b><code>mongo</code></b> was formally deprecated, marking the end of its active development and encouraging users to transition to the next-generation shell.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
<b>mongosh(1)</b>, <b>mongod(1)</b>, <b>mongorestore(1)</b>, <b>mongodump(1)</b>, <b>mongoimport(1)</b>, <b>mongoexport(1)</b>


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mongoexport</b> [<i>connection-options</i>] [<i>export-options</i>] <b>--db</b> <<i>database</i>> <b>--collection</b> <<i>collection</i>> [<b>--out</b> <<i>file</i>>]<br><br><i>Common connection options include:</i><br><b>--host</b> <<i>hostname</i>> <b>--port</b> <<i>port</i>> <b>--username</b> <<i>username</i>> <b>--password</b> <<i>password</i>> <b>--authenticationDatabase</b> <<i>database</i>><br><br><i>Common export options include:</i><br><b>--query</b> <<i>JSON</i>> <b>--fields</b> <<i>field1,field2,...</i>> <b>--type</b> <<i>json|csv</i>> <b>--jsonArray</b> <b>--pretty</b> <b>--limit</b> <<i>number</i>> <b>--sort</b> <<i>JSON</i>>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Displays detailed help information about the command.</i><br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Displays the version of the <b>mongoexport</b> utility.</i><br><br><b><b>--verbose, -v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Increases the verbosity of the output. Use multiple <b>-v</b> for more verbose output.</i><br><br><b><b>--quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Suppresses all but critical messages.</i><br><br><b><b>--uri</b> <<i>connection string</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the MongoDB connection string. Overrides <b>--host</b>, <b>--port</b>, <b>--username</b>, etc.</i><br><br><b><b>--host, -h</b> <<i>hostname</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the hostname or IP address of the MongoDB instance to connect to.</i><br><br><b><b>--port</b> <<i>port</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the port on which the MongoDB instance is listening. Default is 27017.</i><br><br><b><b>--username, -u</b> <<i>username</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies a username to authenticate to the MongoDB instance.</i><br><br><b><b>--password, -p</b> <<i>password</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies a password to authenticate to the MongoDB instance. If omitted with <b>--username</b>, <b>mongoexport</b> will prompt for a password.</i><br><br><b><b>--authenticationDatabase</b> <<i>database</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the database to authenticate against if different from the target database.</i><br><br><b><b>--db, -d</b> <<i>database</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i><b>(Required)</b> Specifies the database containing the collection to export.</i><br><br><b><b>--collection, -c</b> <<i>collection</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i><b>(Required)</b> Specifies the collection to export documents from.</i><br><br><b><b>--query, -q</b> <<i>JSON</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Provides a JSON document as a query to filter documents in the collection.</i><br><br><b><b>--queryFile</b> <<i>filename</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies a file containing a JSON query to filter documents.</i><br><br><b><b>--fields, -f</b> <<i>field1,field2,...</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies a comma-separated list of field names to include in the export.</i><br><br><b><b>--fieldFile</b> <<i>filename</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies a file containing a list of field names (one per line) to include.</i><br><br><b><b>--type</b> <<i>json|csv</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the output format. Can be <b>json</b> (default) or <b>csv</b>.</i><br><br><b><b>--out, -o</b> <<i>filename</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the file to which the exported data will be written. If omitted, data goes to stdout.</i><br><br><b><b>--jsonFormat</b> <<i>canonical|relaxed|legacy</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the JSON output format: <b>canonical</b> (strict BSON representation), <b>relaxed</b> (default, for human readability), or <b>legacy</b> (MongoDB 2.x extended JSON).</i><br><br><b><b>--jsonArray</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Outputs the entire collection as a single JSON array, where each document is an element.</i><br><br><b><b>--pretty</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Prints the output in a human-readable format, with indentation.</i><br><br><b><b>--noHeaderLine</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Prevents <b>mongoexport</b> from including the header line for CSV output.</i><br><br><b><b>--limit</b> <<i>number</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the maximum number of documents to export.</i><br><br><b><b>--skip</b> <<i>number</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the number of documents to skip before starting the export.</i><br><br><b><b>--sort</b> <<i>JSON</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Provides a JSON document to specify the order in which to export documents (e.g., <b>'{ "field": 1 }'</b> for ascending).</i><br><br><b><b>--forceTableScan</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Forces a table scan of the collection. Useful for avoiding a <b>query</b> for some queries, but generally less performant.</i><br><br><b><b>--readPreference</b> <<i>mode</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the read preference mode (e.g., <b>primary</b>, <b>secondaryPreferred</b>) for replica sets.</i><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i><b>mongoexport</b> is a command-line utility for exporting data from a MongoDB instance to standard output or a specified file. It is part of the MongoDB Database Tools, a separate package from the core MongoDB server.<br><br>The tool allows users to extract documents from a specific collection within a database. By default, <b>mongoexport</b> outputs data in JSON format, supporting both relaxed (default for easy parsing) and canonical (BSON-like strict) JSON representations. It can also export data in CSV (Comma Separated Values) format, which is particularly useful for importing into spreadsheet applications or other data analysis tools.<br><br>Users can filter the exported data using a JSON query, specify which fields to include or exclude, and even control the number of documents, starting point, and sort order. This flexibility makes <b>mongoexport</b> a valuable tool for data backups, data migration, creating datasets for analysis, or generating reports from MongoDB collections. It's often used in conjunction with <b>mongoimport</b> for data transfers between different MongoDB deployments or systems.</i>


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i><b>mongoexport</b> is designed for data export, not full database backups. It <b>does not export</b> indexes, user roles, stored JavaScript, or other database commands. For full database or collection backups including indexes and other metadata, use <b>mongodump</b>.<br><br>When exporting to CSV format, ensure that the selected fields have a consistent schema across documents, or explicitly define all fields to avoid missing data. If a field is specified but not present in a document, it will be exported as an empty value.<br><br>Exporting very large collections without filtering can consume significant memory and time on both the client and server. Consider using <b>--query</b>, <b>--limit</b>, or <b>--sort</b> for more efficient exports. Passwords provided directly on the command line might be visible in process listings (e.g., <b>ps -ef</b>). Consider using a configuration file or interactive password prompts for better security.</i>


title: EXAMPLE USAGE
content:
<i>To export all documents from 'my_collection' in 'my_database' to a file named 'data.json' in pretty-printed JSON format:</i><br><b>mongoexport --db my_database --collection my_collection --out data.json --pretty</b><br><br><i>To export specific fields 'name' and 'age' for documents where 'status' is 'active' to CSV format:</i><br><b>mongoexport --db my_database --collection my_collection --query '{ "status": "active" }' --fields name,age --type csv --out active_users.csv --noHeaderLine</b>


title: SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS
content:
<i>Avoid providing sensitive information like passwords directly on the command line if possible, as they can be exposed in system process lists. For production environments, consider using environment variables, a configuration file (with <b>--config</b>), or allow <b>mongoexport</b> to prompt for a password interactively if supported by your version.</i>


title: HISTORY
content:
<i><b>mongoexport</b> is a key component of the MongoDB Database Tools, which were originally bundled with the MongoDB server distribution but were separated into a standalone package starting with MongoDB 4.2. This separation allows the tools to be updated independently of the database server, providing more flexibility.<br><br>Over its development, <b>mongoexport</b> has gained significant features, including enhanced authentication mechanisms (e.g., SCRAM-SHA-256, Kerberos), improved SSL/TLS support, and finer control over JSON output formats (relaxed, canonical, legacy). Its evolution reflects the growing complexity and security requirements of modern MongoDB deployments, maintaining its role as a fundamental utility for data handling.</i>


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mongoimport</b> <I>--file</I> <I>filename</I> <I>--db</I> <I>database</I> <I>--collection</I> <I>collection</I> [<I>options</I>]<br><b>mongoimport</b> <I>--uri</I> <I>connection-string</I> <I>--file</I> <I>filename</I> [<I>options</I>]<br><b>cat</b> <I>filename</I> | <b>mongoimport</b> <I>--db</I> <I>database</I> <I>--collection</I> <I>collection</I> [<I>options</I>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays help information about the command.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the <b>mongoimport</b> version number.<br><br><b>--host <hostname></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the MongoDB server hostname to connect to.<br><br><b>--port <port></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the port number to connect to the MongoDB server.<br><br><b>--username <username></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the username for authentication.<br><br><b>--password <password></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the password for authentication. Not recommended for security.<br><br><b>--authenticationDatabase <dbname></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the database where the user is defined for authentication.<br><br><b>--db <dbname></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the database to import data into.<br><br><b>--collection <collection></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the collection to import data into.<br><br><b>--file <filename></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to the input data file. Use '-' for standard input.<br><br><b>--type <json|csv|tsv></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the input file format. Defaults to 'json'.<br><br><b>--headerline</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;For CSV or TSV files, uses the first line as field names rather than importing it as data.<br><br><b>--drop</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Drops the collection before importing data, removing all existing documents.<br><br><b>--upsert</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Updates an existing document if a document with the same unique identifier (or specified fields) exists; otherwise, inserts a new document. Requires <b>--upsertFields</b> or a unique index.<br><br><b>--upsertFields <field1,field2,...></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a comma-separated list of fields for the query portion of the upsert operation.<br><br><b>--jsonArray</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Accepts a single JSON array as the input file, rather than one JSON object per line.<br><br><b>--ignoreBlanks</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;For CSV/TSV input, ignores any blank fields in the input.<br><br><b>--uri <connection-string></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a full MongoDB connection URI string to connect to the database.<br><br><b>--mode <insert|upsert|merge></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(CSV/TSV only) Defines the import mode when matching existing documents.<br><I>insert</I>: Inserts new documents, skipping existing ones.<br><I>upsert</I>: Updates existing documents or inserts new ones.<br><I>merge</I>: Updates existing documents with new field values from the import file.<br><br><b>--stopOnError</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Stops the import operation if an error occurs during processing.<br><br><b>--numInsertionWorkers <n></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Number of workers to import data concurrently, improving performance for large imports.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mongoimport</b> is a command-line utility for importing data from various file formats into a MongoDB collection. It supports JSON, CSV, and TSV (Tab-Separated Values) formats. This tool is part of the MongoDB Database Tools suite and is essential for populating databases with existing datasets, migrating data, or integrating with other systems.<br><br>It can create new collections or append to existing ones, and offers options for specifying database credentials, handling duplicates through upsert operations, and controlling the import process behavior like dropping existing collections or parsing specific fields as headers. <b>mongoimport</b> is widely used for initial data loading and batch processing operations.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li><b>Performance for Large Data:</b> For extremely large datasets, <b>mongoimport</b> can be slower than direct data loading or custom scripts. While <b>--numInsertionWorkers</b> helps, consider bulk operations or client-side drivers for maximum throughput.</li><li><b>Idempotency and Data Loss:</b> Using <b>--drop</b> will permanently delete all existing data in the target collection. Without <b>--upsert</b> or <b>--mode merge</b>, repeated imports will create duplicate documents if the data already exists.</li><li><b>Schema Flexibility vs. Strictness:</b> MongoDB is schema-less, but <b>mongoimport</b> can still infer data types. Be mindful of potential parsing issues, especially with mixed-type columns in CSV/TSV, which might require pre-processing or explicit type handling.</li><li><b>Security:</b> Providing passwords directly on the command line is insecure as they can be visible in process lists. Use environment variables, a configuration file (via <b>--config</b>), or interactive prompts.</li><li><b>Resource Usage:</b> Large imports can consume significant system resources (CPU, memory, disk I/O) on both the client machine and the MongoDB server.</li></ul>


title: INPUT DATA FORMATS
content:
<b>mongoimport</b> automatically detects JSON if no <b>--type</b> is specified. For CSV and TSV, it expects a consistent number of fields per row and attempts type inference, which can sometimes be problematic for columns with mixed data types. For more control, consider using <b>--columnsHaveTypes</b> for CSV/TSV imports.


title: ERROR HANDLING
content:
By default, <b>mongoimport</b> continues processing even after encountering non-critical errors (e.g., duplicate key errors). The <b>--stopOnError</b> option forces it to halt the import process immediately upon the first error, which can be useful for debugging or strict data integrity requirements.


title: SECURITY BEST PRACTICES
content:
To avoid exposing sensitive credentials on the command line, it is best practice to use a <I>--config</I> file containing connection details, set environment variables (e.g., <I>MONGODB_URI</I>, <I>MONGODB_USERNAME</I>, <I>MONGODB_PASSWORD</I>), or rely on interactive password prompts where available.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mongoimport</b> is an integral part of the <B>MongoDB Database Tools</B> suite, which was historically bundled with the MongoDB server distribution. As of MongoDB 4.2, the Database Tools (including <b>mongoimport</b>, <b>mongoexport</b>, <b>mongodump</b>, <b>mongorestore</b>, etc.) were separated into their own release package, allowing for independent versioning and updates. This change streamlined development and ensured compatibility across different MongoDB server versions. Its core functionality for importing structured data has remained consistent since its inception.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
<b>mongoexport</b>(1): Export data from MongoDB collections., <b>mongodump</b>(1): Create a binary export of MongoDB data., <b>mongorestore</b>(1): Restore data from <b>mongodump</b> binary backups., <b>mongo</b>(1): The MongoDB shell for interactive database operations., <b>cat</b>(1): Concatenate files and print on the standard output (often used to pipe input to <b>mongoimport</b>).


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message for the command and exits.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Returns the `mongorestore` release number and exits.<br><br><b><b>--host</b> <i>&lt;hostname&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the hostname or IP address of the MongoDB instance to connect to. Default is <i>localhost</i>.<br><br><b><b>--port</b> <i>&lt;port&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the port number of the MongoDB instance to connect to. Default is <i>27017</i>.<br><br><b><b>--username</b> <i>&lt;username&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a username to authenticate to the MongoDB instance.<br><br><b><b>--password</b> <i>&lt;password&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a password to authenticate to the MongoDB instance. If not provided, `mongorestore` prompts for it.<br><br><b><b>--authenticationDatabase</b> <i>&lt;dbname&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the database where the user is defined. Used with <i>--username</i> and <i>--password</i>.<br><br><b><b>--db</b> <i>&lt;database&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the database to restore. If not specified, all databases in the dump directory are restored.<br><br><b><b>--collection</b> <i>&lt;collection&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the collection to restore. Requires <i>--db</i> to be specified.<br><br><b><b>--drop</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Drops each collection from the target database before restoring the collection from the dump files. This ensures a clean restore.<br><br><b><b>--archive</b> <i>&lt;file.archive&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Restores from a `mongodump` archive file created with the <i>--archive</i> option. Cannot be used with <i>--dir</i>.<br><br><b><b>--gzip</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Decompresses gzipped files produced by `mongodump --gzip` during the restore process.<br><br><b><b>--dir</b> <i>&lt;directory&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the BSON dump directory to restore from. By default, `mongorestore` looks for a directory named <i>dump</i> in the current working directory.<br><br><b><b>--oplogReplay</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Replays the oplog from the `oplog.bson` file found in the dump directory (or archive) to ensure point-in-time recovery. Requires a replica set backup.<br><br><b><b>--numParallelCollections</b> <i>&lt;N&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Restores collections in parallel, allowing for faster restore times for large datasets. Specify the number of collections to restore concurrently.<br><br><b><b>--noIndexRestore</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents `mongorestore` from recreating indexes after restoring data. Indexes will need to be built manually afterwards.<br><br><b><b>--nsInclude</b> <i>&lt;namespace_regex&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Includes only the namespaces that match the provided regex during the restore process. A namespace is a database and collection name, e.g., <i>mydb.mycollection</i>.<br><br><b><b>--nsExclude</b> <i>&lt;namespace_regex&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Excludes the namespaces that match the provided regex during the restore process.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The `mongorestore` utility is an essential command-line tool used to restore data from a MongoDB database backup created by `mongodump`. It reads BSON data (Binary JSON) from a specified dump directory or a compressed archive file and writes it to a running MongoDB instance. This tool is crucial for disaster recovery, migrating data between MongoDB instances, or simply restoring a specific database or collection for development and testing purposes. `mongorestore` intelligently recreates collections, indexes, and documents, allowing granular control over the restore process through various options like dropping existing data, replaying the oplog for point-in-time recovery, or restoring only specific namespaces. It can also decompress gzipped backup files on the fly, making it flexible for various backup strategies.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>Version Compatibility:</b> Always ensure that the `mongorestore` utility version is compatible with the MongoDB server version you are restoring to. It's generally recommended to use a `mongorestore` version that is the same or slightly newer than the target MongoDB server version.<br><br><b>Disk Space:</b> The target MongoDB server requires sufficient disk space to accommodate the restored data, including indexes.<br><br><b>Permissions:</b> The user running `mongorestore` must have read access to the backup files/directory and appropriate write permissions on the target MongoDB instance.<br><br><b><i>--drop</i> Option:</b> Use the <i>--drop</i> option with caution, as it permanently deletes existing collections before restoring them, leading to data loss if the backup is incomplete or invalid.<br><br><b>Oplog Replay:</b> Point-in-time recovery using <i>--oplogReplay</i> only works if the backup was taken from a replica set and includes the oplog.bson file.


title: SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS
content:
When connecting to a remote MongoDB instance, always consider using TLS/SSL encryption (<i>--tls</i>, <i>--tlsCAFile</i>, etc.) to secure data in transit. Ensure that the MongoDB user specified with <i>--username</i> has only the necessary roles and permissions for restoring data (e.g., `restore` role).


title: PERFORMANCE OPTIMIZATION
content:
For very large datasets, using the <i>--numParallelCollections</i> option can significantly reduce restore times by importing multiple collections concurrently. Also, ensuring the target MongoDB server has adequate hardware resources (CPU, RAM, fast I/O) is critical for optimal restore performance. In some extreme cases for initial bulk loads, temporarily disabling journaling on the target MongoDB instance can speed up restores, but this is highly risky and should only be done with extreme caution and understanding of data durability implications.


title: HISTORY
content:
`mongorestore` is a foundational component of the MongoDB Database Tools, which have been an integral part of the MongoDB ecosystem since its early days. Initially bundled with the core MongoDB server distribution, these tools, including `mongorestore`, were later separated into a standalone package. This decoupling allowed for independent development and release cycles, enabling quicker updates and bug fixes for the tools without requiring a full MongoDB server upgrade. Over time, `mongorestore` has evolved to support new MongoDB features, improve performance (e.g., parallel collection restores), and handle various backup formats like gzipped files and archives, solidification its role as the primary utility for restoring MongoDB data.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-h</b>, <b>--host</b> <i>&lt;hostname&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the hostname of the MongoDB instance to connect to.<br><br><b><b>--port</b> <i>&lt;port&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the port number of the MongoDB instance to connect to.<br><br><b><b>-u</b>, <b>--username</b> <i>&lt;username&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Authenticates as the specified user. Requires a password or password prompt.<br><br><b><b>-p</b>, <b>--password</b> <i>&lt;password&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the password for the user. If omitted with <b>--username</b>, <b>mongosh</b> will prompt for the password.<br><br><b><b>--authenticationDatabase</b> <i>&lt;db&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the database to authenticate against. Defaults to the database specified in the URI or 'admin'.<br><br><b><b>--authenticationMechanism</b> <i>&lt;mechanism&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the authentication mechanism to use (e.g., SCRAM-SHA-256, MONGODB-X509).<br><br><b><b>--tls</b>, <b>--ssl</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables TLS/SSL for the connection to the MongoDB instance.<br><br><b><b>--tlsCAFile</b> <i>&lt;path&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to a .pem file that contains the root certificate chain from the Certificate Authority.<br><br><b><b>--tlsCertificateKeyFile</b> <i>&lt;path&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to the client's .pem file that contains the client's TLS certificate and private key.<br><br><b><b>--eval</b> <i>&lt;javascript_code&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes the specified JavaScript code string. Useful for short, one-off commands.<br><br><b><b>--file</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes the JavaScript file specified by <i>&lt;file&gt;</i> and then exits. Ideal for scripting.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the <b>mongosh</b> version number and exits.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays help information about <b>mongosh</b> and its available options.<br><br><b><b>--nodb</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts the shell without connecting to any database. Allows executing local JavaScript or connecting later.<br><br><b><b>--quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Runs <b>mongosh</b> in quiet mode, suppressing most shell output, such as connection warnings.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mongosh</b> is the modern, interactive command-line shell for MongoDB. It provides a powerful JavaScript-based interface for interacting with MongoDB deployments, allowing users to execute queries, perform administrative tasks, and write scripts. Designed for both developers and database administrators, <b>mongosh</b> offers features like syntax highlighting, intelligent autocompletion, and context-aware help, significantly enhancing the user experience compared to its predecessor, the legacy <b>mongo</b> shell. It connects directly to MongoDB instances, enabling full CRUD operations, aggregation framework execution, and database administration functionalities such as user management, role definition, and replica set configuration. <b>mongosh</b> is extensible, allowing users to define custom functions and scripts for repetitive tasks. It also supports the connection string URI format for flexible connection options.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mongosh</b> replaces the legacy <b>mongo</b> shell; while largely compatible, some scripting differences exist due to API and environment changes. It is a standalone executable and does not require Node.js to be separately installed by the user. Users might encounter connection issues related to network configurations, firewalls, or incorrect authentication credentials.


title: URI CONNECTION STRINGS
content:
<b>mongosh</b> strongly encourages using <I>URI connection strings</I> for specifying connection parameters. A URI combines host, port, database, authentication, and TLS/SSL options into a single string (e.g., <I>mongodb://user:password@host:port/database?authSource=admin&amp;tls=true</I>). This method is more concise and often less error-prone than passing numerous command-line arguments, especially for complex configurations.


title: INTERACTIVE VS. SCRIPTING MODE
content:
<b>mongosh</b> can be used in two primary modes. In <I>interactive mode</I> (default), it provides a read-eval-print loop (REPL) for ad-hoc queries and administrative tasks, offering features like tab-completion. In <I>scripting mode</I>, invoked using the <B>--file</B> or <B>--eval</B> options, <b>mongosh</b> executes JavaScript code non-interactively and then exits, making it suitable for automation, batch operations, and CI/CD pipelines.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mongosh</b> was introduced by MongoDB Inc. as the official successor to the legacy <b>mongo</b> shell. It emerged around the MongoDB 4.4 and 5.0 releases, aiming to provide a more robust, user-friendly, and independently developed interactive experience. Unlike its predecessor, which was bundled with the MongoDB server, <b>mongosh</b> is distributed as a standalone tool, allowing for more frequent updates and a decoupled development cycle. Its introduction marked a significant upgrade in shell capabilities, including enhanced usability features like syntax highlighting and autocompletion.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mono</b> [<i>options</i>] <i>&lt;assembly|script&gt;</i> [<i>arguments...</i>]<br>where <i>&lt;assembly|script&gt;</i> is the path to a .NET executable (.exe), a shared library (.dll), or a script file (e.g., .fsx, .ps1).


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-V</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the Mono runtime version information.<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the command-line help message with available options.<br><br><b><b>--debug</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables debugging support for the executed assembly, typically used with a debugger client.<br><br><b><b>--profile</b>[=<i>profiler</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Activates a profiler to analyze application performance. If <I>profiler</I> is omitted, the default is used.<br><br><b><b>--aot</b>[=<i>options</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs Ahead-Of-Time (AOT) compilation of the assembly. This generates native code before execution, potentially improving startup time. Optional <I>options</I> can specify compilation behavior.<br><br><b><b>--optimize</b>[=<i>option</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Controls the runtime's optimization levels. Can enable or disable specific optimizations (e.g., <I>all</I>, <I>-all</I>, <I>shared</I>, <I>calls</I>).<br><br><b><b>--runtime</b>=<i>version</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the desired runtime version (e.g., <I>v4.0</I>) to load the assembly against.<br><br><b><b>--config</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Uses an alternative <I>file</I> as the Mono runtime configuration file instead of the default.<br><br><b><b>--server</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Optimizes the runtime for server workloads, potentially improving throughput for long-running applications.<br><br><b><b>--trace</b>[=<i>category</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables tracing of runtime events. <I>category</I> can filter traced events (e.g., <I>all</I>, <I>assembly</I>, <I>gc</I>).<br><br><b><b>--gc</b>=<i>sgen|boehm</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Selects the garbage collector. <I>sgen</I> is the default, newer, generational collector; <I>boehm</I> is the older, conservative collector.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mono</b> command is the primary executable for the <B>Mono runtime</B>, an open-source implementation of Microsoft's <B>.NET Framework</B> and Common Language Infrastructure (CLI). It enables developers to run applications written in languages like C# (compiled into assemblies with a <I>.exe</I> or <I>.dll</I> extension) directly on Linux, macOS, and other Unix-like operating systems. Mono provides a complete CLI runtime, including a Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler, garbage collector, and a comprehensive set of core class libraries. This command facilitates the execution of cross-platform applications, ranging from desktop programs to server-side services, without requiring a Windows environment.


title: CAVEATS
content:
While Mono aims for broad compatibility, not all features of the Microsoft .NET Framework (especially Windows-specific UI frameworks like WPF or certain legacy WinForms controls) are fully implemented. Performance characteristics may also differ from native .NET on Windows. Users should verify compatibility for complex applications.


title: ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
content:
Several environment variables can influence Mono's behavior, including:<br><b>MONO_PATH</b>: Specifies directories to search for assemblies.<br><b>MONO_CONFIG</b>: Overrides the default runtime configuration file location.<br><b>MONO_GC_PARAMS</b>: Configures parameters for the garbage collector.


title: JIT VS. AOT COMPILATION
content:
By default, Mono uses a <B>Just-In-Time (JIT)</B> compiler, which compiles IL code to native code during execution. The <B>--aot</B> option allows for <B>Ahead-Of-Time (AOT)</B> compilation, generating native code before runtime. AOT can improve application startup time, especially on embedded systems, but may result in larger executable sizes and reduced dynamic code generation capabilities.


title: HISTORY
content:
Initiated by Miguel de Icaza and Novell in 2001, the Mono project sought to bring .NET development to Linux and other non-Windows platforms. It gained significant adoption, notably with the Unity 3D game engine. Development continued under Xamarin, which Microsoft later acquired in 2016. With Microsoft's push for cross-platform <B>.NET Core</B> (now simply <B>.NET</B>), the focus of the broader .NET ecosystem shifted. However, Mono continues to be actively maintained, particularly for specific use cases like Unity, Xamarin.Forms mobile development, and embedded systems, often leveraging the modern .NET runtime's libraries.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>[<i>FILES/SOLUTIONS</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Opens the specified solution file (<i>.sln</i>), project file, or individual source file in the IDE. If multiple paths are provided, all will be opened.<br><br><b><b>--new-window</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces the specified solution or file to open in a new instance of the IDE, rather than in an already running instance.<br><br><b><b>--no-splash</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses the display of the splash screen that typically appears during the IDE's startup sequence.<br><br><b><b>--debug</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Launches the IDE in a debug mode. This option is primarily used by developers working on <i>MonoDevelop</i> itself, to debug its internal processes.<br><br><b><b>--profile=&lt;name&gt;</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts the IDE with profiling enabled, using the specified profile configuration. Useful for performance analysis of the IDE.<br><br><b><b>--attach-console</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Attaches a console window to the <i>MonoDevelop</i> process. This allows for displaying internal log messages and debugging output directly in the terminal.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version information for the <i>MonoDevelop</i> IDE.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a brief summary of available command-line options and their usage.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>MonoDevelop</i> was an open-source integrated development environment (IDE) primarily designed for developing software with C# and other .NET languages, running on Linux, macOS, and Windows.<br><br>It aimed to provide a comprehensive development experience similar to Microsoft's Visual Studio for the Mono platform. Key features included an advanced text editor with code completion, a powerful debugger, integrated version control, and support for various project types and languages. It allowed developers to create desktop applications, web applications, and mobile apps (via Xamarin).<br><br>MonoDevelop was a crucial tool for cross-platform .NET development before its evolution into Visual Studio for Mac and subsequent deprecation.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>MonoDevelop</i> has been officially superseded. Its direct successor, <i>Visual Studio for Mac</i>, was retired by Microsoft in 2024. While the core open-source components may still exist, active development as a standalone IDE under the <i>MonoDevelop</i> name has largely ceased. Users are encouraged to transition to modern alternatives like <i>Visual Studio Code</i> with C# Dev Kit or <i>JetBrains Rider</i> for cross-platform .NET development.<br><br>The command-line utility primarily serves to launch the graphical IDE, not for headless operations like building or testing, which are typically handled by <i>dotnet CLI</i> tools or internal build systems.


title: GUI APPLICATION FOCUS
content:
<i>MonoDevelop</i> is fundamentally a graphical user interface (GUI) application. The <b>monodevelop</b> command is primarily used to launch the IDE, optionally opening specific projects or files, rather than performing command-line automation tasks. Most development and build processes are managed within the IDE itself or by separate command-line tools like <b>dotnet</b>.


title: ADD-IN ARCHITECTURE
content:
The IDE was highly extensible through an add-in architecture. Developers could create and integrate add-ins to extend its functionality, support new languages, or integrate with external tools. This allowed for a customized development environment tailored to specific needs and workflows.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>MonoDevelop</i> originated in 2003 as an effort to port <i>Visual Studio .NET</i> to <i>Linux</i> and provide a native IDE for the <i>Mono</i> framework. It was initially developed by <i>Ximian</i>, later acquired by <i>Novell</i>.<br><br>Following the acquisition of <i>Xamarin</i> (which had continued <i>MonoDevelop</i>'s development) by <i>Microsoft</i> in 2016, <i>MonoDevelop</i> was rebranded and extensively re-engineered to become <i>Visual Studio for Mac</i>. This transition marked a significant shift, aligning the IDE more closely with the <i>Visual Studio</i> ecosystem. Despite its retirement as <i>Visual Studio for Mac</i> in 2024, its open-source foundation continues to influence modern .NET development tools.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--help</b>, <b>-h</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a brief help message explaining the command's usage and options.<br><br><b><b>--version</b>, <b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the version information of the <b>monodis</b> utility.<br><br><b><b>--output=FILE</b>, <b>-o=FILE</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Redirects the disassembled output to the specified <I>FILE</I> instead of standard output.<br><br><b><b>--assembly</b>, <b>-a</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disassembles only the assembly metadata, not the full CIL code.<br><br><b><b>--method=METHOD</b>, <b>-m=METHOD</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disassembles a specific method by its full name (e.g., '<i>Namespace.Class::MethodName</i>').<br><br><b><b>--type=TYPE</b>, <b>-t=TYPE</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disassembles a specific type (class, struct, interface) by its full name (e.g., '<i>Namespace.ClassName</i>').<br><br><b><b>--il</b>, <b>-i</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces the display of CIL instructions even if not explicitly requested by other options (e.g., with <b>--method</b> or <b>--type</b>, it's often implied).<br><br><b><b>--nofilter</b>, <b>-n</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents any filtering of the output, showing all members including compiler-generated ones.<br><br><b><b>--nocomment</b>, <b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses the display of comments in the disassembled output, making it more concise.<br><br><b><b>--noheader</b>, <b>-q</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Omits the header information that usually appears at the beginning of the disassembled output.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>monodis</b> command is a utility provided as part of the <B>Mono</B> project, which is a free and open-source implementation of Microsoft's .NET Framework. Its primary purpose is to disassemble compiled .NET assemblies (executables or libraries) into their <B>Common Intermediate Language (CIL)</B> form. Similar to Microsoft's <I>ILDASM</I> utility, <b>monodis</b> allows developers and analysts to inspect the CIL instructions, metadata, method bodies, and type definitions contained within a .NET assembly without needing the original source code.<br><br>It's an invaluable tool for understanding how compiled .NET code works, for debugging, for reverse engineering, or for verifying the contents of an assembly. While compilers translate high-level languages like C# or VB.NET into CIL, <b>monodis</b> performs the reverse operation, making the low-level instructions visible and understandable.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>monodis</b> requires the <B>Mono runtime</B> environment to be installed on your system to function. It is specifically designed for <B>.NET assemblies</B> and cannot be used to disassemble native (non-CIL) binaries. The output can be very verbose, especially for large assemblies, and interpreting it requires familiarity with Common Intermediate Language (CIL) and .NET assembly structure.


title: USAGE CONTEXT
content:
Unlike tools like <B>objdump(1)</B> which disassemble native machine code from compiled C/C++ programs, <b>monodis</b> operates exclusively on <B>Common Intermediate Language (CIL)</B> bytecode, which is the platform-agnostic intermediate language used by the .NET runtime. This distinction is crucial for understanding its specific application.


title: EXAMPLE
content:
To disassemble a .NET executable named '<i>MyApplication.exe</i>' and output the results to a file:<br><code>monodis --output=MyApplication.il MyApplication.exe</code><br><br>To disassemble only a specific method '<i>Program::Main</i>' from '<i>MyApplication.exe</i>':<br><code>monodis --method='Program::Main' MyApplication.exe</code>


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>monodis</b> command emerged as a crucial component of the <B>Mono project</B>, which was initiated by Ximian (later acquired by Novell, then Xamarin, and now managed by Microsoft). Mono's goal was to create an open-source, cross-platform implementation of the .NET Framework. As part of this effort, a tool equivalent to Microsoft's proprietary <I>ILDASM</I> (.NET Intermediate Language Disassembler) was needed to allow developers to inspect and debug compiled Mono and .NET assemblies. <b>monodis</b> filled this role, providing a command-line interface for disassembling CIL and metadata, enabling deeper understanding and analysis within the Mono ecosystem.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<i><br>No standard synopsis available as <b>monop</b> is not a recognized Linux command. Its syntax would be entirely dependent on its custom implementation.<br></i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>N/A</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Parameters for <b>monop</b> are not documented as it is not a standard Linux command. Any options or arguments would be specific to its custom implementation.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>monop</b> command does not appear to be a standard utility commonly found across various Linux distributions, nor is it documented in the official GNU/Linux man pages or widely recognized command references. This suggests that <b>monop</b> might be a custom-developed script, a specialized tool used within a specific enterprise or project, or potentially a typo for a different, existing command (e.g., <i>monit</i>, <i>top</i>, <i>ps</i>, <i>monitor</i>).<br><br>Without specific context or distribution-specific documentation, it is impossible to accurately describe its purpose, syntax, or functionality. Standard Linux commands are typically part of core utilities, system monitoring packages, or widely adopted open-source projects, and their documentation is readily accessible via the <i>man</i> command or online resources. If <b>monop</b> is encountered, its behavior would likely depend entirely on its source code or the environment in which it was deployed. Users are advised to check local system documentation, consult with the system administrator, or examine any scripts that might define or invoke such a command to understand its specific role and usage.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The primary caveat is that <b>monop</b> is not a standard or universally recognized Linux command. Its presence and behavior on any system would indicate a custom installation or a highly specific, niche application. Relying on its existence or functionality across different systems is not advisable without prior verification and understanding of its source. Users should exercise caution and investigate its origin if encountered.


title: UNRECOGNIZED COMMAND
content:
If you encounter the 'monop' command, it is crucial to understand that it is not part of standard Linux distributions. Its presence likely indicates a custom script, a very specific application, or a local utility developed for a particular environment. Always verify its source and purpose within your specific system context before attempting to use it.


title: HISTORY
content:
There is no documented public history for a standard <b>monop</b> command in Linux. If this command exists, its history would be specific to its development team, project, or organization, and not part of the common Linux utility lineage.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
N/A: No direct related commands as <b>monop</b> is not standard. Users seeking general system monitoring or process management might look into: <i>top(1)</i>, <i>ps(1)</i>, <i>htop(1)</i>, <i>monit(1)</i>, <i>systemctl(1)</i>, <i>journalctl(1)</i>


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mons</b> [<i>OPTION</i>...] [<i>COMMAND</i>]<br><b>mons</b> <i>detect</i><br><b>mons</b> <i>list</i><br><b>mons</b> <i>auto</i><br><b>mons</b> <i>set</i> <<i>DISPLAY</i>> [--<i>resolution</i> <<i>WxH</i>>] [--<i>primary</i>] [--<i>pos</i> <<i>X</i>>x<<i>Y</i>>] [--<i><REL_POS></i> <<i>OTHER_DISPLAY</i>>]<br><b>mons</b> <i>off</i> <<i>DISPLAY</i>><br><b>mons</b> <i>mirror</i> <<i>PRIMARY_DISPLAY</i>> <<i>SECONDARY_DISPLAY</i>><br><b>mons</b> <i>--version</i><br><b>mons</b> <i>--help</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>detect</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Detects and displays available monitors and their capabilities, often showing their assigned names (e.g., eDP-1, HDMI-1).</i><br><br><b><i>list</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Lists currently active monitor configurations, including resolution, position, and primary status.</i><br><br><b><i>auto</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Automatically configures detected monitors, often extending the desktop across all connected displays.</i><br><br><b><i>set</i> <<i>DISPLAY</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Configures a specific monitor, identified by its name (e.g., 'eDP-1', 'HDMI-1').</i><br><br><b><i>off</i> <<i>DISPLAY</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Turns off a specified monitor, effectively disabling its output.</i><br><br><b><i>mirror</i> <<i>PRIMARY_DISPLAY</i>> <<i>SECONDARY_DISPLAY</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Mirrors the content of the primary display onto the secondary display.</i><br><br><b>--<i>resolution</i> <<i>WxH</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the display resolution for the specified monitor, e.g., '1920x1080'.</i><br><br><b>--<i>primary</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Designates the specified monitor as the primary display, where panels and new windows often appear by default.</i><br><br><b>--<i>pos</i> <<i>XxY</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the absolute top-left corner position of the monitor within the virtual desktop space.</i><br><br><b>--<i>left-of</i> <<i>OTHER_DISPLAY</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Positions the current monitor to the left of another specified display.</i><br><br><b>--<i>right-of</i> <<i>OTHER_DISPLAY</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Positions the current monitor to the right of another specified display.</i><br><br><b>--<i>above</i> <<i>OTHER_DISPLAY</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Positions the current monitor above another specified display.</i><br><br><b>--<i>below</i> <<i>OTHER_DISPLAY</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Positions the current monitor below another specified display.</i><br><br><b>--<i>version</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Displays the version information of the mons utility and exits.</i><br><br><b>--<i>help</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Displays a brief help message with common commands and options, then exits.</i><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mons</i> is a command-line utility designed to simplify the configuration and management of multiple monitors and display outputs within an X.Org environment. While <i>xrandr</i> is the underlying powerful tool for display management, <i>mons</i> often acts as a user-friendly wrapper or a standalone script, abstracting away the complexity of <i>xrandr</i> commands. Its primary purpose is to quickly enable, disable, or reconfigure displays, set resolutions, and arrange monitor positions (e.g., left-of, right-of, above, below). This makes it particularly useful for laptop users connecting to projectors or external monitors, allowing them to switch between various display modes (mirror, extended, external only) with minimal effort. <i>mons</i> aims to provide a more intuitive interface for common display tasks compared to directly manipulating <i>xrandr</i> parameters, making multi-monitor setups more accessible from the terminal.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>The </i><b>mons</b><i> command is not a standard utility found in all Linux distributions; its availability often depends on specific desktop environments, user repositories, or custom installations. It typically relies on the X.Org display server and the </i><b>xrandr</b><i> utility as its backend. Therefore, it will not function in Wayland-only environments or on systems without X.Org. Improper usage can lead to temporary display issues or misconfigurations, requiring a manual fix with </i><b>xrandr</b><i> or a system restart. Users should ensure their graphics drivers are correctly installed for optimal performance.</i>


title: <B>EASE OF USE</B>
content:
<i>mons</i> is particularly valued for its simplicity and ease of use compared to the verbose and often intimidating syntax of <i>xrandr</i>. It abstracts common multi-monitor operations into straightforward commands, making it ideal for scripting display changes or quickly adjusting monitor setups without diving deep into <i>xrandr</i> documentation.


title: <B>INTEGRATION WITH DESKTOP ENVIRONMENTS</B>
content:
While <i>mons</i> is a command-line tool, it can be easily integrated into desktop environments through custom keyboard shortcuts or startup scripts. This allows users to define and switch between different monitor profiles (e.g., 'laptop only', 'external monitor extended', 'projector mirror') with a single keypress or a quick command execution, enhancing workflow efficiency.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>Unlike core Linux utilities, </i><b>mons</b><i> does not have a single, long-standing standardized history. It emerged primarily as a collection of shell scripts or small C programs created by individual developers or communities aiming to simplify multi-monitor setup, which traditionally required complex </i><b>xrandr</b><i> commands. Its development is often driven by the need for a quick, command-line solution to common display challenges faced by laptop users who frequently connect to external monitors or projectors. Specific implementations might vary greatly, from simple Bash wrappers around </i><b>xrandr</b><i> to more sophisticated tools with configuration file support, but all share the goal of making display management more accessible. It gained traction as a convenient tool for quickly switching display modes or setting up project presentations without extensive command-line knowledge.</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-background</b> <i>color</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the background color for empty regions or image padding.<br><br><b><b>-geometry</b> <i>WxH+X+Y</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Define the preferred image size and offset for each image in the montage.<br><br><b><b>-tile</b> <i>colsxrows</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the number of columns and rows in the tile grid (e.g., <i>4x3</i>).<br><br><b><b>-label</b> <i>text</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Apply an annotation text label to each image.<br><br><b><b>-pointsize</b> <i>N</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the font size for labels.<br><br><b><b>-font</b> <i>name</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the font to use for labels.<br><br><b><b>-title</b> <i>text</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set an overall title for the entire montage.<br><br><b><b>-frame</b> <i>WxH+X+Y</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Add a decorative frame around each image within the montage.<br><br><b><b>-thumbnail</b> <i>WxH</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Resize images to a specified thumbnail size before adding them to the montage.<br><br><b><b>-shadow</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Add a shadow effect beneath each image.<br><br><b><b>-bordercolor</b> <i>color</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the color of the border around each image.<br><br><b><b>-borderwidth</b> <i>N</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Define the width of the border around each image.<br><br><b><b>-interline-spacing</b> <i>N</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adjust the spacing between lines of multi-line text labels.<br><br><b><b>-mode</b> <i>concatenate|frame|compare</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Control how images are arranged. <i>concatenate</i> is common for simple grids.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>montage</b> command, part of the ImageMagick suite, is a powerful utility for arranging multiple individual images into a single, cohesive composite image. It's commonly used to create contact sheets, photo albums, or image galleries where thumbnails or smaller versions of multiple images are displayed together. Users can control various aspects of the output, such as image spacing, borders, labels, titles, background color, and the geometric arrangement of tiles. It supports a vast array of image formats for both input and output, making it highly versatile for automated image processing and visual presentation.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Memory Usage:<br>Processing many high-resolution images can consume significant memory and CPU resources, potentially leading to performance issues on systems with limited resources.<br><br>Output Size:<br>The resulting montage image can become very large depending on the number and size of input images and the chosen geometry, potentially leading to large file sizes.<br><br>ImageMagick Dependency:<br>The <b>montage</b> command is an integral part of the ImageMagick software suite and requires ImageMagick to be installed on the system to function.


title: COMMON USE CASES
content:
Creating contact sheets from digital photos.<br>Generating thumbnail galleries for websites.<br>Automating the creation of image grids for reports or presentations.


title: INPUT/OUTPUT FORMATS
content:
<b>montage</b> supports over 200 image formats, including JPEG, PNG, GIF, TIFF, BMP, SVG, and many others, allowing for flexible input and output options.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>montage</b> is an integral part of the ImageMagick software suite, which was first released in 1987 by John Cristy at E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. ImageMagick was initially designed to convert 24-bit images to 8-bit images for display on systems with 8-bit color displays. Over the decades, it has grown into a comprehensive, open-source library and suite of command-line tools for manipulating images, with <b>montage</b> specifically addressing the need to combine multiple visual elements into a single composite view. Its usage has become widespread in web development, scientific imaging, and automated image processing workflows due to its versatility and robustness.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-d</b> <i><difficulty></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the game difficulty. This typically affects the frequency and severity of terrain obstacles. The value is an integer.<br><br><b><b>-r</b> <i><scroll_rate></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the scroll rate of the terrain. A higher value makes the game move faster, increasing the challenge. The value is an integer.<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits the program.<br><br><b><b>-V</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows version information for the <i>moon-buggy</i> game and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>moon-buggy</i> is a classic ASCII-based terminal game where players control a lunar vehicle navigating a procedurally generated, constantly scrolling lunar surface.<br><br>The primary objective is to achieve the highest score by driving the longest possible distance without crashing. The game presents challenges such as craters, bumps, and varying terrain, requiring players to manage speed and utilize jumps strategically to avoid obstacles, prevent the buggy from flipping over, or falling into deep pits.<br><br>Despite its simple graphical interface, <i>moon-buggy</i> offers addictive gameplay and is a popular example of nostalgic terminal entertainment.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Due to its ASCII-based nature, <i>moon-buggy</i> is best played in a terminal window of sufficient size. Very small terminal dimensions might lead to display issues or an unplayable experience. It relies on <b>ncurses</b> or similar terminal libraries for rendering.


title: CONTROLS
content:
<b>Left Arrow</b>: Brake / Move left<br><b>Right Arrow</b>: Accelerate / Move right<br><b>Up Arrow</b>: Jump<br><b>'q'</b> or <b>'Q'</b>: Quit the game


title: SCORING
content:
Your score is determined by the distance traveled. The game ends when the buggy flips over, falls into a deep pit, or becomes irretrievably stuck. Aim for the longest distance to achieve a high score!


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>moon-buggy</i> was developed by J. R. R. Raabe and released in the early 2000s. It quickly became a beloved part of the collection of simple, yet engaging, terminal-based games often found bundled with various Linux distributions and Unix-like systems. Its design reflects the era of minimalist, efficient software that runs directly in the command line interface.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mopac</b> <I>input_file.mop</I> [<I>output_file.out</I>]<br><br>Typically, the program is invoked by executing the <I>mopac</I> binary followed by the name of the input file. Output is often directed to a specified file or standard output.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><I>input_file.mop</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The path to the MOPAC input file, which contains all necessary keywords and molecular geometry data for the calculation.<br><br><b>[<I>output_file.out</I>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Optional. The path where the calculation results will be saved. If omitted, output is typically directed to standard output (stdout).<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
MOPAC (Molecular Orbital PACkage) is a widely used semi-empirical quantum chemistry program. It performs calculations of molecular electronic structure, properties, and reactions. Employing various semi-empirical Hamiltonians like <I>AM1</I>, <I>PM3</I>, <I>PM6</I>, and <I>PM7</I>, MOPAC offers a balance between computational accuracy and speed, making it suitable for larger molecules than typically handled by more computationally intensive <I>ab initio</I> methods.<br><br>Users prepare an input file containing keywords to specify calculation type (e.g., geometry optimization, single point energy) and the molecular structure. MOPAC is an essential tool in chemistry, materials science, and biochemistry for predicting molecular geometries, heats of formation, vibrational frequencies, and spectroscopic data.


title: CAVEATS
content:
MOPAC is a specialized scientific application, not a standard Linux utility command. It requires separate installation and may not be available on all systems by default.<br><br>The accuracy of results from MOPAC depends on the chosen semi-empirical Hamiltonian and its parameterization. It provides approximations to the molecular Schrödinger equation, which are generally less accurate than <I>ab initio</I> methods but are significantly faster for large systems.<br><br>Proper interpretation of MOPAC output requires a fundamental understanding of quantum chemistry principles.


title: INPUT FILE KEYWORDS
content:
MOPAC calculations are primarily controlled by keywords placed in the first line of the input file. These keywords dictate the type of calculation, desired output, and specific algorithms to be used. Common examples include:<br><ul><li><I>PM7</I>: Specifies the PM7 Hamiltonian, the latest and often most accurate semi-empirical method in MOPAC.</li><li><I>GEOMETRY</I>: Instructs MOPAC to optimize the molecular geometry.</li><li><I>1SCF</I>: Performs a single-point energy calculation without geometry optimization.</li><li><I>CHARGE=n</I>: Sets the total charge of the molecule (e.g., <I>CHARGE=1</I> for a cation).</li><li><I>HESSIAN</I>: Calculates the Hessian matrix, used for vibrational frequency analysis and characterizing stationary points.</li><li><I>BONDS</I>: Requests calculation and output of bond orders.</li></ul>


title: TYPICAL WORKFLOW
content:
A typical workflow for using MOPAC involves:<br>1. <B>Creating an input file (.mop):</B> This file contains the calculation keywords and the molecular structure (e.g., Cartesian coordinates or Z-matrix).<br>2. <B>Running MOPAC:</B> Executing the <I>mopac</I> command with the input file.<br>3. <B>Analyzing output (.out):</B> Reviewing the generated output file for optimized geometries, energies, charges, vibrational frequencies, and other calculated properties. Specialized visualization software is often used to interpret results.


title: HISTORY
content:
MOPAC's lineage dates back to the early 1970s, with its foundational algorithms derived from earlier semi-empirical programs such as <I>MINDO/3</I> and <I>MNDO</I>. The program was primarily developed and maintained by Dr. James J.P. Stewart, who continuously updated and expanded its capabilities.<br><br>Over decades, MOPAC has seen numerous significant revisions, including the introduction of improved semi-empirical Hamiltonians like <I>AM1</I>, <I>PM3</I>, <I>PM6</I>, and most recently, <I>PM7</I>. These updates have enhanced its accuracy and applicability to a wider range of chemical systems, solidifying its position as a staple in computational chemistry.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-d</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays helpful messages (like '--More--') and prompts at the bottom of the screen.<br><br><b><b>-f</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Counts logical lines, rather than screen lines (i.e., do not fold long lines).<br><br><b><b>-l</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses processing of form feeds (<i>Ctrl-L</i> or <i>\f</i>).<br><br><b><b>-p</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not scroll. Clears the screen before displaying each page of output.<br><br><b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not scroll. Clears the screen before displaying each page and redraws each line instead of scrolling.<br><br><b><b>-s</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Squeezes multiple blank lines into a single blank line.<br><br><b><b>-u</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses underlining.<br><br><b><b>-<i>number</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the number of lines per screen to display.<br><br><b><b>+<i>/pattern</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts displaying the file at the first occurrence of the specified <i>pattern</i>.<br><br><b><b>+<i>linenumber</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts displaying the file at the specified <i>linenumber</i>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>more</b> command is a fundamental Linux utility used to view text files, displaying content one screenful at a time. It's particularly useful for examining large files that exceed the terminal's visible area, preventing content from scrolling past too quickly.<br><br>When <b>more</b> reaches the end of a screen, it pauses and waits for user input, allowing for controlled reading. Users can navigate forward through the file by line or by screen, search for specific text patterns, and jump to precise locations within the document. Introduced as one of the earliest pagers for Unix-like systems, <b>more</b> established a standard for interactive file viewing. While still widely available and functional, it has largely been superseded in common usage by the more advanced <b>less</b> command, primarily because <b>more</b> lacks the ability to navigate backward through a file.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The primary limitation of <b>more</b> is its inability to scroll backward through a file. Once you've moved past a section, you cannot return to it without restarting the command. For this reason, <b>less</b> is generally preferred as it offers full backward and forward navigation, along with many other advanced features.


title: COMMON INTERACTIVE COMMANDS
content:
While viewing a file with <b>more</b>, several key presses provide interactive control:<br><ul><li><i>Spacebar</i>: Advances the display by one full screen (page down).</li><li><i>Enter</i> or <i>Return</i>: Advances the display by one line.</li><li><i>q</i> or <i>Q</i>: Quits the <b>more</b> command.</li><li><i>/pattern</i>: Searches forward for the specified <i>pattern</i>.</li><li><i>n</i>: Repeats the last search for the next occurrence of the pattern.</li><li><i>h</i>: Displays a help screen with available commands.</li><li><i>=</i>: Displays the current line number.</li><li><i>:f</i>: Displays the current file name and line number.</li></ul>


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>more</b> command was originally written by Daniel Halbert in 1978 at the University of California, Berkeley. It quickly became a standard utility in Unix-like operating systems, providing a much-needed way to interactively view large text files by pausing at the end of each screen. Before <b>more</b>, users would often have to scroll rapidly through files or use less interactive tools. Its development laid the groundwork for subsequent pagers, most notably <b>less</b>, which improved upon <b>more</b>'s functionality by adding backward navigation, leading to its playfully named successor.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
moreutils is a software package, not a single command with its own synopsis. It provides a suite of individual commands. Each command within the moreutils package has its own specific syntax and usage.<br><br>Examples of command usage from moreutils:<br><br><i><b>ts</b> [-r] [-i] [-s] [-z] [format]</i><br><i><b>vipe</b> [command...]</i><br><i><b>vidir</b> [directory...]</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>Note:</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;moreutils itself is a package and does not accept command-line parameters. Instead, it provides a set of individual commands, each with its own parameters and options. Below are some of the notable commands included in the moreutils package:<br><br><b><b>ts</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prefixes standard input with timestamps. Useful for logging and analyzing output.<br><br><b><b>vipe</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allows you to edit a pipe. Input to a command is sent to an editor, and the editor's output is then sent to the original command.<br><br><b><b>vidir</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Edits a directory as text. Files and directories can be renamed, deleted, or created by editing a list in your $EDITOR.<br><br><b><b>ifne</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes a command only if the standard input is not empty, useful in scripting conditional actions.<br><br><b><b>isutf8</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Checks if standard input or a file is UTF-8 encoded.<br><br><b><b>sponge</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sucks up all standard input before writing it to a file. Useful for overwriting a file with the output of a command that reads from that same file (e.g., <i>grep ... file | sponge file</i>).<br><br><b><b>pee</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Tees standard input to multiple pipes. Like <i>tee</i> but for pipes, allowing simultaneous processing by multiple commands.<br><br><b><b>combine</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Combines two files based on common fields, similar to <i>join</i> but more flexible.<br><br><b><b>mispipe</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pipes two commands together but allows the exit status of the first command to be preserved, unlike standard piping.<br><br><b><b>zrun</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Automatically decompresses files and runs a command on the decompressed content, handling various compression formats transparently.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
moreutils is a package containing a collection of small, focused, and incredibly useful Unix utilities that often fill gaps left by standard tools or provide more efficient ways to accomplish common tasks. These utilities are designed to be simple, standalone, and easily scriptable, adhering to the Unix philosophy of doing one thing well. They enhance productivity by providing tools for tasks like editing pipes, managing directories as text, timestamping output, or conditionally executing commands. It's an essential toolkit for any command-line user or script developer looking for pragmatic enhancements to their workflow.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Since moreutils is a collection, understanding its full utility requires familiarity with each individual command it provides. Some commands might have slight overlaps in functionality with existing utilities, but typically offer a more streamlined or specific solution. The <b>parallel</b> command in moreutils is distinct from GNU <b>parallel</b>, which is a much more comprehensive job runner for parallel execution.


title: INSTALLATION
content:
moreutils is available in the package repositories of most Linux distributions and macOS via Homebrew.<br><br>To install on Debian/Ubuntu: <i>sudo apt-get install moreutils</i><br>To install on Fedora/RHEL/CentOS: <i>sudo dnf install moreutils</i> (or <i>yum</i> for older versions)<br>To install on Arch Linux: <i>sudo pacman -S moreutils</i><br>To install on macOS with Homebrew: <i>brew install moreutils</i>


title: HISTORY
content:
The moreutils package was created by Joey Hess, a prominent Debian developer, to address common needs and simplify scripting tasks that often required complex combinations of standard utilities. It started as a collection of small, personal scripts and grew into a widely adopted package due to the practical usefulness and adherence to the Unix philosophy of its tools. The development focuses on creating robust, efficient, and highly scriptable commands that seamlessly integrate into the Unix environment.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<i>No standard syntax exists as "moro" is not a recognized command.</i><br>Hypothetically: <code>moro [options] [arguments]</code>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>(None defined)</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;As <b>"moro"</b> is not a standard command, no official parameters or options are documented. Any parameters would be specific to a custom implementation or a misinterpretation of another command.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The command <b>"moro"</b> does not appear to be a standard utility or commonly distributed program within typical Linux environments. It's possible it refers to a highly specialized, custom-developed script, a deprecated tool, a typo for another common command like <b>"more"</b>, <b>"mv"</b>, or <b>"mount"</b>, or a component of a niche software package not widely adopted. Without a specific context or package, its functionality cannot be defined. Users encountering <b>"moro"</b> are advised to check their system's installed packages, aliases, or script directories, or to confirm the spelling if they intended to use a different, known command. There is no official documentation for a <b>"moro"</b> command in major Linux manual pages.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The primary caveat is that <b>"moro"</b> is not a recognized command in standard Linux distributions. Attempting to execute <b>"moro"</b> will almost certainly result in a <i>"command not found"</i> error, unless a custom alias, script, or specialized software package containing a <b>"moro"</b> executable has been specifically installed on the system.


title: CUSTOM USE CASES
content:
If <b>"moro"</b> is found on a system, it is most likely a custom script or binary specific to that environment, potentially performing specialized tasks related to a particular application, build system, or internal workflow. Its purpose can only be determined by examining the script/binary or its documentation within that specific context where it is defined.


title: HISTORY
content:
There is no documented history of a standard <b>"moro"</b> command in the development of Unix-like operating systems or mainstream Linux distributions. Its appearance would typically signify a localized, custom script or a very niche application.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message outlining the command's syntax and options.<br><br><b>-v, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the version information for the <b>morse</b> utility.<br><br><b>-d, --decode</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instructs <b>morse</b> to decode the input from Morse code to plain text. By default, it encodes text to Morse.<br><br><b>-t, --text</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Explicitly specifies that the input is plain text. This is often the default mode of operation when encoding.<br><br><b>-m, --morse</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Explicitly specifies that the input is Morse code for decoding.<br><br><b>-s, --sound</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Plays the generated Morse code as audible tones. This option often requires additional parameters for controlling sound characteristics.<br><br><b>-w WPM, --wpm=WPM</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the words per minute (WPM) for generating or playing Morse code, affecting the speed of the output. This is typically used with the <b>--sound</b> option.<br><br><b>-f FREQ, --frequency=FREQ</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the frequency (in Hertz) of the audible tones when playing Morse code. Used with <b>--sound</b>.<br><br><b>-S MILLISECONDS, --speed=MILLISECONDS</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the duration of a single "dit" (dot) in milliseconds. This is an alternative way to control speed, often overriding WPM settings.<br><br><b>-o FILE, --output=FILE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Redirects the output (either Morse code or decoded text) to the specified <I>FILE</I> instead of standard output.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>morse</b> command is a command-line utility designed to convert plain text into International Morse code sequences, typically represented by dots (.), dashes (-), and spaces. It can also perform the reverse operation, decoding Morse code representations back into human-readable text. Beyond simple conversion, many implementations of <b>morse</b> offer the ability to play the generated Morse code as audible tones through the system's sound device, allowing users to hear and practice Morse code. This makes it a valuable tool for amateur radio enthusiasts, learners, and anyone interested in communication signals. The command typically reads input from standard input or a specified file and writes the output to standard output or an output file. It supports various parameters to control aspects like output speed (words per minute), sound frequency, and input/output formats.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Sound capabilities might depend on the underlying audio system (e.g., ALSA, PulseAudio) and available speakers or headphones. Some systems might require additional audio utilities to be installed or configured correctly.<br>The exact set of options and their behavior can vary slightly between different implementations or versions of the <b>morse</b> command. The information provided here is common to many versions, particularly those based on the `morse-converter` package.<br>Character support is typically limited to basic Latin alphabet characters, numbers, and some common punctuation. Extended Unicode characters are generally not supported, and international Morse code often has specific adaptations for non-English characters.


title: MORSE CODE REPRESENTATION
content:
The command typically represents a dot as a single period (`.`), a dash as a hyphen (`-`), and spaces between letters or words using single or triple spaces, respectively. For example, the word "SOS" would be represented as `... --- ...` when encoded.


title: INPUT HANDLING
content:
When reading input, <b>morse</b> often processes it line by line from standard input or a specified file. For decoding, it expects valid Morse code sequences separated by spaces between characters and typically three spaces between words. Invalid characters in either input mode may be ignored or result in errors, depending on the implementation.


title: INTERNATIONAL MORSE CODE
content:
The <b>morse</b> command generally adheres to the International Morse Code standard, which defines the precise sequences of dots and dashes for letters, numbers, and punctuation. This standard ensures compatibility and universal understanding among Morse code users.


title: HISTORY
content:
While Morse code itself was invented in the 1830s, command-line utilities like `morse` on Linux are much more recent, emerging as simple programming exercises or specialized tools for amateur radio and communications. Implementations, such as the `morse-converter` package, aim to provide a straightforward way to interact with Morse code for educational, recreational, and practical purposes within the Unix-like environment, often leveraging standard system libraries for text processing and sound output. Their development is typically driven by individual developers or small communities focused on utility and accessibility.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mosh</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>] [<i>user</i><b>@</b>]<i>host</i> [<i>command</i>...]<br><br><b>mosh-client</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>]<br><br><b>mosh-server</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-p <PORT>[:<PORT2>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the UDP port number (or range) for the Mosh server to listen on. <br>Example: <i>-p 60001</i> or <i>-p 60000:60010</i>.<br><br><b>--ssh=<COMMAND></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the SSH command to use for the initial connection. <br>Example: <i>--ssh='ssh -p 2222'</i>.<br><br><b>--ssh-port=<PORT></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the SSH port number to use for the initial connection, shorthand for part of --ssh.<br>Example: <i>--ssh-port=2222</i>.<br><br><b>--predict=<VAL></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the local echo prediction strategy. Valid values include: <i>always</i>, <i>auto</i> (default), <i>never</i>. This controls how Mosh predicts server responses to keystrokes.<br><br><b>--no-confirm</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not ask for confirmation before killing a running Mosh server process on the remote host if one is found.<br><br><b>--no-init</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not send SIGHUP or other initialization signals to the remote command. Useful for scripts.<br><br><b>--bind-server={ssh|all|auto|<IP>}</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Controls which IP address the Mosh server binds to. <i>ssh</i> (default) uses the address SSH reports, <i>all</i> listens on all interfaces, <i>auto</i> attempts to find a good IP, or specify a direct IP address.<br><br><b>--server=<PATH></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to the <b>mosh-server</b> binary on the remote host.<br><br><b>--client=<PATH></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to the <b>mosh-client</b> binary on the local host.<br><br><b>--local</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instructs Mosh to run <b>mosh-server</b> locally (on 127.0.0.1) instead of over SSH to a remote host. Useful for testing or when using a remote display.<br><br><b>--experimental-remote-ip=<IP></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Attempts to connect to the Mosh server using a specific IP address, bypassing SSH's reported address. Use with caution.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
Mosh (Mobile Shell) is a remote terminal application that offers a significant improvement over SSH for interactive sessions, particularly in challenging network environments. Designed for mobile and intermittent connections, Mosh maintains the session even when the client's IP address changes or network connectivity is temporarily lost. It achieves this by using UDP for its primary data transfer, intelligently handling packet loss and out-of-order delivery.<br><br>A key feature of Mosh is its responsiveness, providing instant local echo of keystrokes. Instead of waiting for round-trip network delays, Mosh predicts what the server will do and displays the characters immediately, correcting them if the prediction is wrong. This makes typing feel much more fluid on high-latency connections.<br><br>Mosh leverages SSH for initial connection authentication and port forwarding, but then switches to its own protocol over UDP for the interactive session. This design allows Mosh to roam seamlessly between different IP addresses (e.g., switching from Wi-Fi to cellular data) without interrupting the session, making it ideal for users on the go or with unstable network access. It is an excellent choice for anyone who frequently works over unreliable internet connections or experiences high latency.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Mosh requires UDP ports to be open on the remote server (default 60001-60060).<br>It does not natively support X11 forwarding directly over its UDP connection (it relies on SSH for this).<br>It does not replace `scp` or `sftp` for file transfers, which still require SSH.<br>Some advanced terminal features or sequences might not be fully compatible due to Mosh's state synchronization model.<br>Requires <b>mosh-server</b> to be installed on the remote host.


title: HOW MOSH WORKS
content:
Mosh establishes an initial connection using SSH for authentication and to spawn <b>mosh-server</b> on the remote host. After this, the interactive session switches to Mosh's own protocol over UDP. Mosh maintains a synchronized state between the client and server, sending only the differences in the screen state. This state synchronization, combined with UDP, allows it to handle packet loss and network changes gracefully without session interruption.


title: LOCAL ECHO AND PREDICTION
content:
One of Mosh's most praised features is its predictive local echo. When you type, Mosh immediately displays the characters on your local terminal, without waiting for the server's acknowledgment. It uses a predictive algorithm to anticipate the server's response. If the prediction is incorrect (e.g., an error message or a command not found), Mosh quickly corrects the display, making typing feel much more responsive, especially over high-latency connections. This significantly reduces the perceived lag.


title: PORT REQUIREMENTS
content:
Mosh typically requires UDP ports 60001-60060 to be open on the remote server's firewall for the <b>mosh-server</b> to listen on. If these ports are blocked, Mosh will try to find an open port within this range. The specific port can also be explicitly specified using the <i>-p</i> option. SSH's default port 22 is still used for the initial setup.


title: HISTORY
content:
Mosh was developed by Jonathon Levin and others at MIT as part of the Culler research group. Its development began around 2011, driven by the increasing need for a robust and responsive shell experience on mobile devices and over high-latency or intermittently connected networks. Unlike traditional SSH which maintains a TCP connection, Mosh was designed from the ground up to use UDP, enabling its key features: seamless roaming across IP address changes, resilience to network outages, and predictive local echo. It aimed to address the fundamental limitations of TCP-based connections in the context of interactive remote shells, quickly gaining popularity among developers and system administrators working in challenging network conditions.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-c</b> <i>config_file</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify a path to a configuration file. This is the primary way to configure Mosquitto.<br><br><b><b>-d</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Run Mosquitto in the background as a daemon.<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable verbose logging, printing more information to stdout/stderr.<br><br><b><b>-p</b> <i>port</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Listen on the specified port instead of the default 1883 (or 8883 for SSL/TLS).<br><br><b><b>-h</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display help information and exit.<br><br><b><b>-k</b> <i>keepalive_interval</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the maximum amount of time in seconds that a client can be idle before it is disconnected.<br><br><b><b>-q</b> <i>queue_size</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the maximum number of queued messages for a client.<br><br><b><b>-r</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disable `retain` functionality for messages.<br><br><b><b>-u</b> <i>user</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Run the broker as the specified user. Recommended for security.<br><br><b><b>-V</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display version information and exit.<br><br><b><b>-x</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disable the use of `syslog` for logging.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mosquitto</b> command initiates the Mosquitto MQTT broker, a crucial component for enabling Machine-to-Machine (M2M) and Internet of Things (IoT) communication. It implements the MQTT protocol versions 5.0, 3.1.1, and 3.1, providing a lightweight publish/subscribe messaging transport suitable for low-power devices and high-latency networks. <br><br>Mosquitto acts as a central hub where clients (publishers) send messages to specific topics, and other clients (subscribers) receive messages from those topics. Its efficiency and small footprint make it ideal for embedded systems and cloud-based IoT solutions. Beyond the broker, the Mosquitto project also provides command-line client utilities, <b>mosquitto_pub</b> and <b>mosquitto_sub</b>, for publishing and subscribing to MQTT messages respectively, facilitating quick testing and scripting. The broker supports various features including authentication, authorization, TLS/SSL encryption, persistence, and message bridging to other MQTT brokers.


title: CAVEATS
content:
By default, Mosquitto runs with minimal security (no authentication/authorization), making it unsuitable for production environments without proper configuration. It is highly recommended to configure authentication, authorization, and TLS/SSL encryption using a configuration file (via <b>-c</b>) before deployment. Running the broker directly from the command line is generally for testing; in production, it's typically managed as a system service.


title: CONFIGURATION FILES
content:
Mosquitto's behavior is primarily controlled through its configuration file, typically located at <i>/etc/mosquitto/mosquitto.conf</i> or a similar path depending on the installation. This file allows you to define listeners, authentication methods (e.g., password file, PAM, LDAP), access control lists (ACLs), persistence settings, bridge connections, and more. Understanding and customizing this file is essential for secure and robust deployments.


title: RUNNING AS A SERVICE
content:
On most Linux distributions, Mosquitto is installed as a system service (e.g., using systemd). This allows it to start automatically on boot, run in the background, and be managed easily. You can typically start, stop, enable, or check the status of the Mosquitto service using commands like <i>sudo systemctl start mosquitto</i> or <i>sudo systemctl status mosquitto</i>.


title: HISTORY
content:
Mosquitto was originally developed by <i>Roger Light</i>. It gained significant popularity due to its efficiency and simplicity, becoming a cornerstone for many IoT projects. In 2017, Mosquitto became an official project under the <i>Eclipse Foundation</i>, specifically as part of the Eclipse Paho project, which aims to provide open-source client implementations for MQTT and MQTT-SN. This move solidified its position as a community-driven, vendor-neutral broker solution for the evolving IoT landscape. Its continuous development ensures compatibility with the latest MQTT specifications and robust performance.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mosquitto_passwd</b> [<b>-c</b>] [<b>-D</b>] [<b>-b</b>] [<b>-P</b>] <i>password_file</i> <i>username</i> [<i>password</i>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>password_file</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The path to the Mosquitto password file to create, update, or delete users from. This file will store the username and hashed password pairs.<br><br><b><i>username</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The specific username to add, update, or delete within the specified password file.<br><br><b><i>password</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Optional) The password for the user. This argument is only used in conjunction with the <b>-b</b> (batch) option to provide the password directly on the command line.<br><br><b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Create a <i>new</i> password file. If a file already exists at the specified path, it will be overwritten. This option is mandatory when initializing the password file for the first time.<br><br><b><b>-D</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Delete the specified <i>username</i> from the <i>password_file</i>. When using this option, the <i>password</i> argument is not required.<br><br><b><b>-b</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Use the password provided directly as the <i>password</i> argument on the command line. While convenient for scripting, this method is less secure as the password might be visible in shell history or process listings. It should be used with caution.<br><br><b><b>-P</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prompt for the password securely. This is the recommended method for entering passwords interactively, as it prevents the password from appearing in shell history or process lists. The command will prompt you to enter and confirm the password.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mosquitto_passwd</b> command is used to create and manage the password file for Mosquitto's built-in authentication system. This file contains username and hashed password pairs, which the Mosquitto broker uses to authenticate connecting clients. It supports creating new password files, adding new users, updating existing user passwords, and deleting users.<br><br>The command uses strong hashing algorithms to store passwords securely, never storing them in plain text. It's an essential tool for securing your MQTT broker by restricting access to authorized users.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Using the <b>-b</b> (batch) option with the password directly on the command line is less secure as the password might be visible in shell history or process listings. It is generally recommended to use the interactive mode (<b>-P</b>) or omit the password argument to be prompted securely.<br><br>The password file generated by <b>mosquitto_passwd</b> is a plain text file containing username:hashed_password pairs. Ensure its permissions are set correctly (e.g., `chmod 600`) to prevent unauthorized access, while still allowing the Mosquitto broker to read it.


title: PASSWORD HASHING
content:
The command employs strong, industry-standard cryptographic hashing algorithms (such as PBKDF2 with SHA-256) to hash passwords before storing them in the password file. This crucial security measure ensures that plain text passwords are never stored, significantly protecting user credentials even if the password file is compromised.


title: INTEGRATION WITH MOSQUITTO BROKER
content:
To activate authentication using the file generated by <b>mosquitto_passwd</b>, you must configure your Mosquitto broker. This typically involves modifying the `mosquitto.conf` file to include directives like `allow_anonymous false` (to disable anonymous access) and `password_file /path/to/your/password_file` (to specify the path to the authentication file).


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mosquitto_passwd</b> was developed as an integral part of the open-source Mosquitto project, an MQTT broker, to provide a simple and robust file-based authentication mechanism. Introduced in early versions, it addresses the fundamental need for client authentication, enabling administrators to manage user credentials directly without requiring complex external authentication plugins. Its development paralleled the growth of MQTT for IoT and message brokering, ensuring a straightforward way to secure broker access.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mosquitto_pub</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>]<br>  <b>-t</b> <i>&lt;topic&gt;</i><br>  [<b>-m</b> <i>&lt;message&gt;</i> | <b>-f</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i> | <b>-l</b> | <b>-n</b>]<br>  [<b>-h</b> <i>&lt;host&gt;</i>]<br>  [<b>-p</b> <i>&lt;port&gt;</i>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-h</b>, <b>--host</b> <i>&lt;host&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the hostname or IP address of the MQTT broker to connect to. Defaults to 'localhost'.<br><br><b><b>-p</b>, <b>--port</b> <i>&lt;port&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Define the port number for the broker connection. Defaults to 1883 for plain MQTT or 8883 for MQTT over TLS.<br><br><b><b>-t</b>, <b>--topic</b> <i>&lt;topic&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>Required.</b> The MQTT topic to which the message will be published.<br><br><b><b>-m</b>, <b>--message</b> <i>&lt;message&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The payload of the message to be published. Cannot be used with <b>-f</b>, <b>-l</b>, or <b>-n</b>.<br><br><b><b>-f</b>, <b>--file</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Read the message payload from the specified file. Cannot be used with <b>-m</b>, <b>-l</b>, or <b>-n</b>.<br><br><b><b>-l</b>, <b>--stdin-line</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Read messages line by line from standard input, publishing each line as a separate message. Cannot be used with <b>-m</b>, <b>-f</b>, or <b>-n</b>.<br><br><b><b>-n</b>, <b>--null-message</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Publish a null (zero length) message. Cannot be used with <b>-m</b>, <b>-f</b>, or <b>-l</b>.<br><br><b><b>-q</b>, <b>--qos</b> <i>&lt;qos&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the Quality of Service level for the message (0, 1, or 2).<br><br><b><b>-r</b>, <b>--retain</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mark the published message as a retained message. The broker will store it and send it to new subscribers to the topic.<br><br><b><b>-i</b>, <b>--id</b> <i>&lt;id&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the client ID to use for the connection. If not provided, a default ID based on the process ID is used.<br><br><b><b>-u</b>, <b>--username</b> <i>&lt;username&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide a username for authentication with the broker.<br><br><b><b>-P</b>, <b>--pw</b> <i>&lt;password&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide a password for authentication with the broker. Used in conjunction with <b>-u</b>.<br><br><b><b>-k</b>, <b>--keepalive</b> <i>&lt;seconds&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Define the keepalive interval in seconds. The client will send a ping message if no other messages are exchanged within this period.<br><br><b><b>--will-topic</b> <i>&lt;topic&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the topic for the client's Last Will and Testament message. This message is published by the broker if the client disconnects unexpectedly.<br><br><b><b>--will-payload</b> <i>&lt;payload&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the payload for the Last Will and Testament message.<br><br><b><b>--will-qos</b> <i>&lt;qos&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the Quality of Service level for the Last Will and Testament message.<br><br><b><b>--will-retain</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the retain flag for the Last Will and Testament message.<br><br><b><b>--cafile</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Path to a file containing trusted CA certificates for TLS/SSL connection.<br><br><b><b>--capath</b> <i>&lt;directory&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Path to a directory containing trusted CA certificates for TLS/SSL connection.<br><br><b><b>--cert</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Path to the client certificate file for client authentication (mutual TLS).<br><br><b><b>--key</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Path to the client private key file for client authentication.<br><br><b><b>--tls-version</b> <i>&lt;version&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the TLS protocol version to use (e.g., <i>tlsv1.2</i>, <i>tlsv1.3</i>).<br><br><b><b>--ciphers</b> <i>&lt;ciphers&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the permitted TLS cipher suites.<br><br><b><b>--insecure</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allow connection to brokers using self-signed certificates without validation. Not recommended for production.<br><br><b><b>--proxy</b> <i>&lt;address&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Connect to the MQTT broker via a SOCKS5 proxy.<br><br><b><b>--reconnect-delay</b> <i>&lt;seconds&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the initial delay in seconds before attempting to reconnect to the broker after a disconnection.<br><br><b><b>--reconnect-max-delay</b> <i>&lt;seconds&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the maximum delay in seconds between reconnect attempts. Used with <b>--reconnect-delay</b> for exponential backoff.<br><br><b><b>-d</b>, <b>--debug</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable debug messages for detailed client operation insights.<br><br><b><b>-V</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display the version information of the <b>mosquitto_pub</b> client.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show the help message and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mosquitto_pub</b> is a command-line client used to publish messages to an MQTT broker. It provides a straightforward way to send data to specific topics on an MQTT server, enabling communication with various IoT devices and applications. This tool is essential for testing MQTT setups, scripting automated data sends, or integrating with sensor networks. It fully supports standard MQTT features, including Quality of Service (QoS) levels, retained messages, and Last Will and Testament functionalities. Furthermore, it offers robust security options such as TLS/SSL encryption and username/password authentication, making it adaptable for both secure and insecure MQTT deployments.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>Network Connectivity:</i> Ensure the MQTT broker is running and accessible on the specified host and port. Firewall rules can block connections.<br><i>Security:</i> Using <b>-u</b> and <b>-P</b> sends credentials in plain text over non-TLS connections. Always use TLS/SSL (<b>--cafile</b>, <b>--cert</b>, <b>--key</b>) for production environments to protect sensitive information.<br><i>Message Size:</i> Extremely large messages might exceed broker limits or network buffer constraints, leading to transmission failures.<br><i>Topic Structure:</i> While publishing, ensure the topic string adheres to MQTT standards (e.g., no leading/trailing slashes if not intended as root, avoid wildcards for direct publishing).


title: <I>PAYLOAD AND TOPICS</I>
content:
Messages published via <b>mosquitto_pub</b> consist of two primary components: a <i>payload</i> (the actual data being sent) and a <i>topic</i> (a hierarchical string that acts as a routing key). The topic is crucial for subscribers to filter and receive messages they are interested in. The payload can be any arbitrary binary data, though it commonly contains text formats like JSON, XML, or plain text, or binary sensor readings.


title: <I>QUALITY OF SERVICE (QOS)</I>
content:
MQTT defines three levels of Quality of Service to ensure message delivery reliability:<br><b>QoS 0 (At Most Once):</b> Messages are delivered once, with no confirmation. This is the fastest option, but messages may be lost if the network fails or the broker is unavailable.<br><b>QoS 1 (At Least Once):</b> Messages are delivered at least once. The publisher receives confirmation (PUBACK) that the message reached the broker, but duplicates are possible.<br><b>QoS 2 (Exactly Once):</b> Messages are delivered exactly once. This is the slowest but most reliable option, guaranteeing no message loss and no duplication.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>Mosquitto</b> project, which includes the <b>mosquitto_pub</b> utility, was initiated by Roger Light as an open-source implementation of an MQTT broker. It has gained widespread adoption in IoT and M2M communication due to its lightweight nature, efficiency, and strict adherence to the MQTT protocol specification. <b>mosquitto_pub</b>, alongside its counterpart <b>mosquitto_sub</b>, serves as a fundamental command-line tool for interacting with any MQTT broker, proving invaluable for development, testing, and scripting in MQTT-based systems. Its ongoing development closely mirrors the evolution and releases of the MQTT protocol itself.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mosquitto_sub</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>] <b>-t</b> <i>&lt;topic&gt;</i> [<b>-t</b> <i>&lt;topic&gt;</i> ...]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-h</b> <i>&lt;hostname&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the IP address or hostname of the MQTT broker.<br><br><b><b>-p</b> <i>&lt;port&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the network port of the MQTT broker (default: 1883).<br><br><b><b>-t</b> <i>&lt;topic&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Required.</i> The MQTT topic to subscribe to. This option can be used multiple times for subscribing to multiple topics.<br><br><b><b>-q</b> <i>&lt;qos&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Define the Quality of Service level for the subscription (0, 1, or 2). Default is 0.<br><br><b><b>-i</b> <i>&lt;id&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the MQTT client ID. If not provided, a random ID will be generated.<br><br><b><b>-u</b> <i>&lt;username&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide a username for broker authentication.<br><br><b><b>-P</b> <i>&lt;password&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide a password for broker authentication.<br><br><b><b>-k</b> <i>&lt;keepalive&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the keepalive interval in seconds (default: 60). This is the maximum period between messages sent or received.<br><br><b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Use a clean session (default). This means the broker will discard any previous session information for this client upon connection.<br><br><b><b>-C</b> <i>&lt;count&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exit after receiving <i>&lt;count&gt;</i> messages.<br><br><b><b>-T</b> <i>&lt;filter_topic&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Only print messages received on topics that match <i>&lt;filter_topic&gt;</i>, even if subscribed to broader topics.<br><br><b><b>-d</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable debug messages for detailed client activity, useful for troubleshooting.<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print the topic name before the payload of each received message.<br><br><b><b>-r</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Receive retained messages when subscribing. By default, retained messages are not sent.<br><br><b><b>--capath</b> <i>&lt;directory&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify a directory containing CA certificates for SSL/TLS server validation.<br><br><b><b>--cafile</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify a file containing CA certificates for SSL/TLS server validation.<br><br><b><b>--cert</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the client certificate file for SSL/TLS mutual authentication.<br><br><b><b>--key</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the client private key file for SSL/TLS mutual authentication.<br><br><b><b>--tls-version</b> <i>&lt;version&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the minimum TLS protocol version to use (e.g., tlsv1.2).<br><br><b><b>--insecure</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allow untrusted server certificates for SSL/TLS connections. <i>Use with extreme caution, as it bypasses security checks.</i><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mosquitto_sub</b> is a command-line client provided by the Mosquitto project, designed to interact with MQTT brokers. It enables users to subscribe to one or more MQTT topics and receive messages published on those topics. Upon execution, it establishes a connection to a specified MQTT broker (defaulting to localhost:1883), subscribes with a defined Quality of Service (QoS) level, and then continuously listens for incoming messages. All received messages on the subscribed topics are printed to standard output. This functionality makes <b>mosquitto_sub</b> an essential tool for debugging MQTT-based applications, monitoring sensor data, or observing message traffic within an MQTT network. It supports various connection options, including SSL/TLS for secure communication, username/password authentication, and specific MQTT protocol versions.


title: CAVEATS
content:
When using SSL/TLS, ensuring correct certificate paths is crucial for secure connections. The <b>--insecure</b> option bypasses certificate validation and should be avoided in production environments due to significant security risks.<br>By default, <b>mosquitto_sub</b> operates with a 'clean session', meaning it will not receive messages published while it was disconnected, nor will it resume previous subscriptions. If persistent sessions are required, this behavior needs to be managed externally or by the broker. Understanding MQTT topic wildcards (<b>+</b> for single level, <b>#</b> for multi-level) is essential to avoid subscribing to unintended message streams.


title: MULTIPLE SUBSCRIPTIONS
content:
The <b>-t</b> option can be specified multiple times within a single command invocation to subscribe to several distinct topics simultaneously. For example: <br><b>mosquitto_sub -t sensors/temperature -t actuators/control</b>


title: OUTPUT FORMAT
content:
By default, <b>mosquitto_sub</b> prints only the payload of the received message. When the <b>-v</b> (verbose) option is used, it prints the topic name followed by the payload (e.g., '<i>topic</i> <i>payload</i>'). More advanced custom output formats can be achieved using the <b>-F</b> option (format string), allowing users to define how messages are displayed based on various message properties.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mosquitto_sub</b> is an integral part of the <B>Mosquitto</B> project, an open-source MQTT broker and client library initiated by Roger Light. The project saw its first releases around 2009-2010, aiming to provide a lightweight and efficient implementation of the MQTT protocol. The MQTT protocol itself, designed by IBM and Eurotech in 1999 for constrained devices and networks, gained significant traction with the rise of IoT. <b>mosquitto_sub</b> has since become a standard command-line utility for developers and system administrators working with MQTT, offering a reliable way to monitor and interact with message brokers.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-b</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress boldface rendering.<br><br><b>-c</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Clear the screen before opening each new file.<br><br><b>-d</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress underlining rendering.<br><br><b>-e</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exit immediately after the last file is reached.<br><br><b>-f</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable folding of long lines.<br><br><b>-g</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display only the first of multiple blank lines.<br><br><b>-i</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Ignore case during search operations.<br><br><b>-m</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress the percentage display in the status line.<br><br><b>-p</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable multiple window display, showing as many as fit.<br><br><b>-r</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Raw mode: do not process tabs, backspaces, or other special characters.<br><br><b>-s</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress line wrapping for long lines.<br><br><b>-t</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Use tabs as is, without converting them to spaces.<br><br><b>-u</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress both bold and underline (same as -b and -d).<br><br><b>-w</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Start in 'wrap' mode, wrapping long lines.<br><br><b>-x</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hex dump mode: display binary files in hexadecimal format.<br><br><b>-z</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Start in 'squeeze' mode, squeezing multiple blank lines.<br><br><b>-C <color></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the color of the status line.<br><br><b>-M <mode></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the display mode (0: default, 1: raw, 2: hex).<br><br><b>-S <section></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the section to be displayed (e.g., for man pages).<br><br><b>-T <tagfile></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Use the specified tag file for navigation.<br><br><b>-Z <N></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the window size to N lines.<br><br><b>+<num></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Start viewing the file at the specified line number <i>num</i>.<br><br><b>+/pattern</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Search for the specified <i>pattern</i> upon startup.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>most</b> command is a powerful terminal pager designed for viewing text files. Similar to <i>more(1)</i> and <i>less(1)</i>, it displays content one screenful at a time, allowing users to scroll forwards and backwards through files. What distinguishes <b>most</b> are its advanced features, including the ability to display multiple windows simultaneously on the screen, which is particularly useful for comparing different sections of a file or different files.<br><br>It also excels in handling arbitrarily long lines, ensuring that content is properly displayed without truncation. A unique capability is its hex dump mode, allowing for the inspection of binary files in a hexadecimal format. Furthermore, <b>most</b> supports search functionalities, customizable display options like bold/underline suppression, and various modes for different viewing needs, making it a versatile tool for system administrators and developers alike.


title: CAVEATS
content:
While powerful, <b>most</b> is less commonly pre-installed than <i>less(1)</i> or <i>more(1)</i> and may require separate installation. Its multi-window interface, while unique, might have a steeper learning curve for users accustomed to simpler pagers.


title: MULTI-WINDOW DISPLAY
content:
One of <b>most</b>'s standout features is its ability to display multiple windows simultaneously. This allows users to view different parts of the same file or even different files side-by-side, enhancing productivity for comparison or cross-referencing tasks. Activated with the <i>-p</i> option, it automatically adjusts the number of windows based on screen size.


title: HEX DUMP MODE
content:
For developers and system administrators, <b>most</b> provides a dedicated hex dump mode (<i>-x</i> option). This allows binary files to be viewed in a hexadecimal representation, complete with ASCII interpretations, making it invaluable for debugging, analyzing file formats, or inspecting non-textual data directly within the terminal.


title: LONG LINE HANDLING
content:
Unlike some pagers, <b>most</b> excels at displaying arbitrarily long lines without truncation. It can be configured to wrap long lines (<i>-w</i>) or display them without wrapping (<i>-s</i>), offering flexibility for source code, log files, or other content with extensive line lengths.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>most</b> pager was developed by John E. Davis as an alternative to existing pagers like <i>more(1)</i> and <i>less(1)</i>, aiming to combine their best features while adding unique capabilities. Its development, originating in the early 1990s, focused on providing robust handling of long lines, advanced search, and the distinctive multi-window and hex-dump functionalities that set it apart. It has been maintained over the years, offering a specialized tool for advanced text and binary file viewing.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mount</b> [<i>options</i>] <i>device</i> <i>directory</i><br><b>mount</b> [<i>options</i>] <i>directory</i> (<i>from /etc/fstab</i>)<br><b>mount</b> [<i>options</i>] <i>device</i> (<i>from /etc/fstab</i>)<br><b>mount</b> -a [<i>options</i>]<br><b>mount</b> (<i>list mounted filesystems</i>)


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>device</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The device containing the filesystem to be mounted (e.g., <i>/dev/sdb1</i>, <i>//server/share</i>, <i>/path/to/image.iso</i>).<br><br><b><i>directory</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The empty directory (mount point) where the filesystem will be attached (e.g., <i>/mnt/usb</i>, <i>/media/cdrom</i>).<br><br><b>-a, --all</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mount all filesystems mentioned in <i>/etc/fstab</i> (unless specified as <i>noauto</i>).<br><br><b>-t <i>fstype</i>, --types <i>fstype</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the filesystem type (e.g., <i>ext4</i>, <i>xfs</i>, <i>nfs</i>, <i>cifs</i>, <i>iso9660</i>, <i>auto</i> for detection).<br><br><b>-o <i>options</i>, --options <i>options</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify various mount options as a comma-separated list. Common options include <i>ro</i> (read-only), <i>rw</i> (read-write), <i>defaults</i> (use default options from <i>/etc/fstab</i>), <i>remount</i> (change options on an already mounted filesystem), <i>loop</i> (mount a loop device), <i>bind</i> (bind mount), <i>noexec</i> (prevent execution of binaries), <i>nosuid</i> (ignore set-user-id/set-group-id bits).<br><br><b>-r, --read-only</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mount the filesystem read-only. Equivalent to using <i>-o ro</i>.<br><br><b>-w, --read-write</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mount the filesystem read-write. Equivalent to using <i>-o rw</i> (default).<br><br><b>-v, --verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Increase verbosity of output, showing more details about the mounting process.<br><br><b>-f, --fake</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Perform a dry run; everything is done except for the actual system call to mount the filesystem.<br><br><b>-U <i>uuid</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mount the filesystem by its Universally Unique Identifier (UUID) instead of its device name. Often used in <i>/etc/fstab</i>.<br><br><b>-L <i>label</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mount the filesystem by its label instead of its device name. Often used in <i>/etc/fstab</i>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mount</b> command in Linux is used to attach a filesystem, located on a specified device (like a hard drive partition, USB stick, CD-ROM, or network share), to a designated directory in the system's directory tree. This directory is known as the <i>mount point</i>. Once mounted, the files and directories within that filesystem become accessible as if they were part of the local directory structure.<br><br><b>mount</b> allows the operating system to access data on various storage devices or network locations by making them appear as a logical part of the root filesystem. It's crucial for accessing external storage, optical media, network file systems, or even virtual disk images. The opposite command, <b>umount</b>, detaches the filesystem from the mount point, making its contents inaccessible through that path until it is mounted again.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Mounting typically requires root privileges. However, entries in <i>/etc/fstab</i> with the <i>user</i> or <i>users</i> option allow ordinary users to mount and unmount specific filesystems.<br>A mount point must be an empty directory before a filesystem is mounted on it. Any existing content in the directory will be hidden until the filesystem is unmounted.<br>Improper use or forcefully unmounting a busy filesystem can lead to data loss or corruption.


title: MOUNT POINT
content:
A <i>mount point</i> is a directory on the existing filesystem tree (usually on the root filesystem) where an external or separate filesystem is attached. After mounting, the contents of the attached filesystem become accessible through this directory. For example, if you mount a USB drive at <i>/mnt/usb</i>, the files on the USB drive will appear inside <i>/mnt/usb</i>.


title: /ETC/FSTAB
content:
The <i>/etc/fstab</i> file (filesystem table) is a configuration file that contains static information about filesystems. It's read by <b>mount</b> and other utilities to determine which filesystems to mount at boot time, their mount options, and mount points. This file is crucial for persistent filesystem configurations.


title: BIND MOUNTS
content:
A <i>bind mount</i> allows you to re-mount a subtree of the filesystem hierarchy somewhere else. It effectively creates an alias or a duplicate view of a directory's contents at a different location. This is achieved using the <i>-o bind</i> option (e.g., <b>mount --bind /olddir /newdir</b>). It's often used in chroot environments or container technologies.


title: LOOP DEVICES
content:
A <i>loop device</i> is a pseudo-device that makes a file accessible as a block device. This is commonly used to mount disk image files (like <i>.iso</i>, <i>.img</i>) as if they were physical disks. You can mount an ISO image directly using <b>mount -o loop /path/to/image.iso /mnt/cdrom</b>, without needing to burn it to a CD/DVD.


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept of mounting filesystems is fundamental to Unix-like operating systems and has been part of their design since the early days. The <b>mount</b> command itself has evolved to support a wide array of filesystem types (e.g., <i>ext2</i>, <i>ext3</i>, <i>ext4</i>, <i>XFS</i>, <i>ZFS</i>, <i>NTFS</i>, <i>FAT</i>), network file systems (NFS, SMB/CIFS), and advanced features like loop devices and bind mounts. It is part of the <i>util-linux</i> project, which provides a suite of essential Linux utilities, and continues to be actively maintained and adapted to modern storage paradigms.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mount.cifs</b> <i>//server/share mount_point</i> [<b>-o</b> <i>options</i>]<br><br><i>Examples of options:</i><br><i>user=&lt;username&gt;</i><br><i>pass=&lt;password&gt;</i><br><i>credentials=&lt;path_to_file&gt;</i><br><i>domain=&lt;domain_name&gt;</i><br><i>vers=&lt;SMB_version&gt;</i> (e.g., 1.0, 2.1, 3.0, 3.1.1)


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>user=<username></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the username for authentication against the CIFS/SMB server.<br><br><b>pass=<password></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the password for the given username. Using the <i>credentials</i> option is generally more secure.<br><br><b>credentials=<filename></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides the path to a file containing username and password, one per line (e.g., <i>username=value<br>password=value</i>). This is the recommended secure method for supplying credentials.<br><br><b>domain=<domain_name></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the NT domain or Active Directory domain the user belongs to, if required by the server.<br><br><b>vers=<SMB_version></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the SMB protocol version to use for the connection. Common values include <i>1.0</i>, <i>2.0</i>, <i>2.1</i>, <i>3.0</i>, <i>3.02</i>, <i>3.1.1</i>. Essential for compatibility with various servers.<br><br><b>rw / ro</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mounts the share with read-write (<i>rw</i>) or read-only (<i>ro</i>) permissions, respectively. Default is read-write.<br><br><b>uid=<numeric_uid></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the numeric User ID (UID) that will own all files and directories on the mounted share on the client side.<br><br><b>gid=<numeric_gid></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the numeric Group ID (GID) that will own all files and directories on the mounted share on the client side.<br><br><b>file_mode=<octal_mode></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the default permissions for files on the mounted share (e.g., <i>0644</i>).<br><br><b>dir_mode=<octal_mode></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the default permissions for directories on the mounted share (e.g., <i>0755</i>).<br><br><b>_netdev</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Useful in <i>/etc/fstab</i>, this option indicates that the filesystem resides on a device requiring network access, preventing mounting attempts until the network is available.<br><br><b>iocharset=<charset></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the character set to use for converting filenames, especially important for non-ASCII characters (e.g., <i>utf8</i>).<br><br><b>noperm</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instructs the client to ignore UNIX permission bits reported by the server, relying solely on client-side UID/GID mapping for access. Use with caution as it can bypass server-side security.<br><br><b>nounix</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables CIFS Unix Extensions, which can sometimes be necessary for compatibility with certain servers or network-attached storage (NAS) devices that do not fully support these extensions.<br><br><b>sec=<mode></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the security mode to use for authentication, such as <i>ntlm</i>, <i>ntlmv2</i>, <i>ntlmssp</i>, or <i>krb5</i>. This determines the authentication protocol.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mount.cifs</i> is a specialized helper program for the <i>mount</i> command, designed to facilitate the mounting of shares using the Common Internet File System (CIFS) protocol, also known as Server Message Block (SMB). This protocol is predominantly used by Microsoft Windows file servers and Samba servers on Unix-like systems. It allows a Linux system to access and interact with remote network shares as if they were local directories, enabling seamless file and directory access.<br><br>The command handles the intricacies of CIFS/SMB protocol negotiation, authentication, and permission mapping. It provides a rich set of options for specifying credentials (username, password, domain), managing file and directory permissions on the client side, controlling caching behavior, and selecting specific SMB protocol versions for compatibility. While often invoked implicitly by the generic <i>mount -t cifs ...</i> command, <i>mount.cifs</i> offers direct control and detailed configuration for network share integration.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>Security:</b> Never hardcode sensitive passwords directly in scripts or in <i>/etc/fstab</i>. Always use the <i>credentials=</i> option pointing to a file with restrictive permissions (e.g., <i>chmod 600 /path/to/creds_file</i>) for storing credentials.<br><b>Permissions:</b> Mapping Windows ACLs to Unix permissions can be complex. Use <i>uid</i>, <i>gid</i>, <i>file_mode</i>, and <i>dir_mode</i> options carefully to achieve desired client-side permissions. The <i>noperm</i> option bypasses server-side permission checks but might pose security risks.<br><b>Performance:</b> Network latency and server load can significantly affect mounted share performance. Enabling client-side caching (e.g., through <i>cache=strict</i>) or disabling it (<i>cache=none</i>) might be necessary depending on usage patterns.<br><b>SMB Protocol Versions:</b> Different Windows versions and Samba configurations support varying SMB protocol versions. If you experience connection issues, explicitly setting the <i>vers=</i> option might be required to match the server's capabilities.<br><b>Network Dependency:</b> For <i>/etc/fstab</i> entries, always include the <i>_netdev</i> option to ensure the network is initialized before attempting to mount the share, preventing boot failures.


title: AUTOMATIC MOUNTING WITH <I>/ETC/FSTAB</I>
content:
To automatically mount a CIFS share at boot, add an entry to your <i>/etc/fstab</i> file. A typical entry looks like this:<br><i>//server/share /mnt/mountpoint cifs credentials=/etc/cifs/creds,uid=1000,gid=1000,_netdev 0 0</i><br>Ensure the credentials file (e.g., <i>/etc/cifs/creds</i>) has restrictive permissions (<i>chmod 600 /etc/cifs/creds</i>) and contains:<br><i>username=&lt;your_username&gt;</i><br><i>password=&lt;your_password&gt;</i><br>


title: TROUBLESHOOTING COMMON ISSUES
content:
If mounting fails, check the following:<br>- <b>Network Connectivity:</b> Can you ping the server? Is the share name correct?<br>- <b>Credentials:</b> Are the username and password correct? Is the domain specified if required?<br>- <b>Permissions:</b> Check permissions on the mount point and the credentials file.<br>- <b>SMB Version:</b> Try explicitly setting <i>vers=</i> (e.g., <i>vers=2.1</i> or <i>vers=3.0</i>) if you suspect a protocol version mismatch.<br>- <b>Kernel Log:</b> Use <i>dmesg | tail</i> after an attempt to mount to see kernel-level error messages related to CIFS.<br>


title: HISTORY
content:
The <i>mount.cifs</i> command is part of the <i>cifs-utils</i> package, which superseded the older <i>smbfs</i> utility for mounting SMB/CIFS shares on Linux. The development of <i>cifs-utils</i> aimed to provide more robust support for modern SMB protocol versions, including SMB2 and SMB3, improved security features like Kerberos authentication, and better integration with the Linux kernel's <i>cifs</i> module. This transition marked a significant improvement in stability, performance, and feature set for accessing Windows and Samba network shares from Linux.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
mount.ddi <image_file> <mount_point> [-o <options>]<br><i>Note: This is a hypothetical synopsis for a non-standard command.</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><image_file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Path to the hypothetical Disk Duplication Image file to be mounted.<br><br><b><mount_point></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The directory onto which the image file (or a partition within it) would be mounted.<br><br><b>-o <options></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Standard mount options, such as <i>ro</i> (read-only), <i>rw</i> (read-write), <i>loop</i> (implicit for image files), <i>noatime</i>, etc.<br><br><b>-p <partition_index></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>(Hypothetical)</i> Specifies which partition within the DDI image to mount, if the image contains multiple partitions.<br><br><b>--offset <offset></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>(Hypothetical)</i> Manually specifies an offset within the image file where the filesystem begins. This might be used for corrupted images or non-standard layouts.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mount.ddi</i> is <b>not</b> a standard Linux command or a widely recognized filesystem helper. However, if it were to exist, it would function as a specialized helper for the generic <i>mount(8)</i> utility, designed to handle "Disk Duplication Image" (DDI) files. These image files typically contain a byte-for-byte copy of a block device, such as a hard drive or partition, often used in forensic analysis, data recovery, or system backups.<br><br>A hypothetical <i>mount.ddi</i> utility would abstract the process of locating filesystems within such images, potentially handling partition tables and offset calculations automatically, making it easier to mount specific partitions or the entire image as a loopback device. Without such a dedicated helper, mounting DDI files usually involves manually using <i>losetup</i> with specific offsets derived from analyzing the image structure.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mount.ddi</i> is <b>not</b> a standard, universally available Linux command. Its presence and functionality would depend entirely on a custom implementation or a specialized distribution. The "DDI" format itself is not standardized, meaning different tools might produce incompatible "DDI" files. Users typically achieve similar functionality by combining standard utilities like <i>mount(8)</i>, <i>losetup(8)</i>, <i>fdisk(8)</i> or <i>parted(8)</i> (for image analysis), and <i>kpartx(8)</i> (for mapping partitions within images).


title: UNDERSTANDING <I>MOUNT.TYPE</I> HELPERS
content:
The <i>mount</i> command in Linux uses helper programs named <i>mount.TYPE</i> (e.g., <i>mount.cifs</i>, <i>mount.nfs</i>, <i>mount.ntfs-3g</i>) to handle specific filesystem types. When you run <i>mount -t TYPE device mountpoint</i>, <i>mount</i> looks for and executes <i>/sbin/mount.TYPE</i> or a similar path. These helpers encapsulate the complexities of mounting a particular filesystem, often involving network protocols (NFS, CIFS) or specialized drivers (NTFS-3G). A hypothetical <i>mount.ddi</i> would follow this convention for a "ddi" filesystem type.


title: ALTERNATIVE FOR MOUNTING DISK IMAGES
content:
For common disk image formats (like <i>.img</i>, <i>.iso</i>, <i>.vhd</i>), users typically use the <i>mount</i> command directly with the <i>-o loop</i> option. For images containing partition tables, <i>losetup</i> and <i>kpartx</i> are often used together to expose individual partitions as separate block devices before mounting. For example:<br><i>sudo losetup -P /dev/loop0 &lt;image_file&gt;</i><br><i>sudo mount /dev/loop0p1 &lt;mount_point&gt;</i> (for the first partition)


title: HISTORY
content:
As <i>mount.ddi</i> is not a standard command, there is no documented history of its development or widespread usage within the Linux kernel or common distributions. If such a command exists on a specific system, it would likely be a custom script or binary developed for a niche purpose, possibly in forensics, data recovery, or specialized embedded systems to simplify operations on proprietary disk image formats.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
mount.ecryptfs <I>source_directory</I> <I>mount_point</I><br>mount.ecryptfs <I>source_directory</I> <I>mount_point</I> [options]<br>mount.ecryptfs <I>mount_point</I>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><I>source_directory</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The directory containing the encrypted eCryptfs files. This is the lower directory where encrypted data resides.<br><br><b><I>mount_point</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The directory where the decrypted filesystem will be accessible. This is the upper directory which users interact with.<br><br><b>-o <I>option</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies various mount options. These can be standard <i>mount(8)</i> options or eCryptfs-specific options.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_sig=<I>signature</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the signature (a 16-character hexadecimal string) of the encryption key to use for decryption.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_cipher=<I>cipher_name</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the encryption cipher to be used, e.g., 'aes', 'blowfish', 'des3_ede'. Default is often 'aes'.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_key_bytes=<I>size</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the key size in bytes, e.g., '16' (128-bit), '24' (192-bit), '32' (256-bit). Must match the original encryption setup.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_passthrough</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allows unencrypted files within the source directory to be visible and accessible in the mount point. Use with caution.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_xattr</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables support for extended attributes (xattrs) on the eCryptfs filesystem.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_nofilename_cipher</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables filename encryption. If the original files were encrypted with filename encryption, they will not be readable without this option properly matching the original setup. This often implies <I>ecryptfs_passthrough</I> for filenames.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_enable_filename_cipher</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Explicitly enables filename encryption. This is typically the default behavior if not specified otherwise or if the original files were encrypted this way.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_fnek_sig=<I>signature</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the signature for the filename encryption key, if different from the file encryption key.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_unlink_sigs</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Unlinks unused key signatures from the kernel keyring after successful mount, helping to clean up the keyring.<br><br><b>ecryptfs_verbosity=<I>level</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the verbosity level for eCryptfs logging messages, from 0 (silent) to 10 (debug).<br><br><b>no_sig_cache</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables caching of key signatures in the kernel keyring. Can prevent issues with key conflicts but may impact performance.<br><br><b>rw</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mounts the filesystem in read-write mode (default).<br><br><b>ro</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mounts the filesystem in read-only mode.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mount.ecryptfs</i> is a helper utility for the standard <b>mount(8)</b> command, specifically designed to handle filesystems encrypted with <i>eCryptfs</i>. It simplifies the process of mounting an eCryptfs private directory or a raw eCryptfs filesystem, often prompting the user for necessary credentials like passphrases or mount keys.<br><br>It automatically handles the complex aspects of eCryptfs mounting, such as determining the correct source and target paths, setting up the key management, and configuring various eCryptfs-specific options (e.g., encryption ciphers, key sizes, filename encryption). Its primary goal is to provide a user-friendly interface for accessing encrypted data stored in eCryptfs format.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>Key Management:</b> Losing the passphrase or key will result in permanent data loss. <i>eCryptfs</i> relies heavily on kernel keyrings.<br><br><b>Performance:</b> Encryption and decryption add overhead, which can impact filesystem performance, especially for large files or many small files.<br><br><b>Security:</b> While it encrypts data at rest, the decrypted data is accessible in memory. Physical access to a running system could expose data. Proper system security (e.g., disk encryption at boot like LUKS) should complement eCryptfs.<br><br><b>Interoperability:</b> Files encrypted with eCryptfs are generally only readable by eCryptfs.<br><br><b>Filesystem Layout:</b> eCryptfs stores encrypted files in a way that resembles the original directory structure, but file names are often encrypted, and file content is transformed. This can be confusing if directly browsing the source directory.<br><br><b>Kernel Module:</b> Requires the <i>ecryptfs</i> kernel module to be loaded.


title: AUTOMATIC PROMPTING
content:
<i>mount.ecryptfs</i> will often automatically prompt for a passphrase or other key information if it's not provided via command-line options, making it very user-friendly.


title: KERNEL KEYRING INTEGRATION
content:
<i>eCryptfs</i> heavily relies on the Linux kernel's keyring for managing encryption keys. When a filesystem is mounted, keys are added to the active keyring. This can be viewed or managed using the <b>keyctl(1)</b> command.


title: USER-SPACE HELPER
content:
This command acts as a user-space helper, meaning it's invoked by <b>mount(8)</b> when the filesystem type is detected or specified as <i>ecryptfs</i>. The actual encryption/decryption operations happen within the kernel.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>eCryptfs</i> itself was developed primarily by Michael Halcrow at IBM and later at Canonical Ltd., with contributions from other developers. It was designed as a stacked cryptographic filesystem, meaning it sits atop an existing filesystem (like ext4) and encrypts files transparently.<br><br><i>mount.ecryptfs</i> emerged as a user-friendly wrapper for interacting with this filesystem, making it easier for users to manage their encrypted directories without delving into complex <b>mount</b> options and key management manually. It gained significant adoption, particularly in Ubuntu, where it was used for encrypted home directories. Development has been ongoing, adapting to kernel changes and improving stability and features.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<code><b>mount.ecryptfs_private</b> [<i>--user &lt;username&gt;</i>] [<i>--dir &lt;directory&gt;</i>] [<i>--force</i>]</code><br><br><i>This command is primarily invoked by the <code>mount</code> command itself or by higher-level utilities like <code>ecryptfs-mount-private(1)</code>, rather than being directly called by end-users with these options.</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--user &lt;username&gt;</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specify the username whose private directory is to be mounted. If omitted, it defaults to the current user.</i><br><br><b><b>--dir &lt;directory&gt;</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specify the target directory where the private mount should be placed. Defaults to <code>~/Private</code> relative to the user's home directory.</i><br><br><b><b>--force</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Force the mounting operation, potentially overriding some checks. Use with caution.</i><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i><br><code>mount.ecryptfs_private</code> is a helper command for the <code>mount</code> utility, specifically designed to handle <code>ecryptfs_private</code> filesystem types. It facilitates the automatic mounting of encrypted user home directories, a common setup where a user's <code>~/Private</code> directory acts as an encrypted eCryptfs mountpoint.<br><br>When a user logs in, often through Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM) like <code>pam_ecryptfs</code>, this helper is invoked to decrypt and mount the private directory. It uses the user's login passphrase or a derived key to handle the complexities of setting up the correct cryptographic parameters and mounting the underlying encrypted filesystem onto the user's specified private directory, typically <code>~/.Private</code> mounted at <code>~/Private</code>.<br><br>This command ensures that sensitive user data remains encrypted at rest and is only accessible after successful user authentication, significantly enhancing data security on multi-user systems or laptops. It works in conjunction with the eCryptfs kernel module and <code>ecryptfs-utils</code> userspace tools to provide transparent on-the-fly encryption and decryption.</i>


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i><br><b>Requires eCryptfs Kernel Module:</b> The <code>ecryptfs</code> kernel module must be loaded for this command to function.<br><br><b>Key and Directory Structure:</b> Relies heavily on the correct setup of the user's eCryptfs key and directory structure (e.g., <code>~/.Private</code>, <code>~/.ecryptfs</code>).<br><br><b>Improper Unmounting:</b> Improper unmounting (e.g., due to system crash without proper shutdown) can leave the underlying encrypted data temporarily accessible until a reboot or manual unmount.<br><br><b>Security Dependence:</b> Overall security depends on the strength of the user's passphrase and correct key management.<br><br><b>Automated Use:</b> This command is typically part of an automated login process and not intended for manual, everyday use by end-users.</i>


title: <B>HOW IT WORKS WITH LOGIN</B>
content:
<i>When <code>pam_ecryptfs</code> is configured, during user login, it uses the user's login passphrase (or a derived key) to generate an eCryptfs mount passphrase. <code>mount.ecryptfs_private</code> then uses this passphrase to decrypt and mount the <code>~/.Private</code> directory (which is the actual encrypted data store) over the user's <code>~/Private</code> directory. This entire process is largely invisible to the end-user, providing seamless access to their encrypted data.</i>


title: <B>UNDERLYING DIRECTORY STRUCTURE</B>
content:
<i>eCryptfs encrypted home directories typically involve two crucial hidden directories within the user's home:<ul><li><code><b>~/.Private</b></code>: This directory serves as the actual encrypted data store. It's often a separate mountpoint (e.g., <code>/home/.ecryptfs/&lt;username&gt;/.Private</code>) and contains the ciphertext.</li><li><code><b>~/.ecryptfs</b></code>: This directory holds essential eCryptfs mount metadata, cryptographic keys (like the fnek and sigs), and configuration files necessary for the encrypted mount.</li></ul><code>mount.ecryptfs_private</code> understands and operates on this specific structure to perform the mounting operation.</i>


title: HISTORY
content:
<i><br>The <code>mount.ecryptfs_private</code> helper is an integral part of the eCryptfs project, which began development around 2005-2006. It gained significant prominence in Linux distributions, particularly Ubuntu, where it became a standard and often default method for encrypting user home directories. Its development focused on providing a robust and transparent solution for on-the-fly encryption, allowing users to secure their sensitive data without complex manual encryption steps. Its deep integration with PAM modules further streamlined the user experience, making secure home directories easily manageable through standard login procedures, thereby enhancing data privacy and security on personal and multi-user systems.</i>


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<B>mount.fuse</B> <I>&lt;fuse_driver_name&gt; &lt;mount_point&gt;</I> [<I>-o &lt;options&gt;</I>]<BR><i>Note: This command is usually invoked indirectly by <B>mount(8)</B>, for example:</i><BR><B>mount -t fuse.</B><I>&lt;fuse_driver_name&gt;</I> <I>&lt;source&gt; &lt;mount_point&gt;</I> [<I>-o &lt;options&gt;</I>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><I>&lt;fuse_driver_name&gt;</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The name of the specific FUSE driver (e.g., <I>sshfs</I>, <I>ntfs-3g</I>) being mounted. This argument often serves as the 'source' for the FUSE filesystem when used with <I>mount -t fuse</I>.<br><br><b><I>&lt;mount_point&gt;</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The target directory where the FUSE filesystem will be mounted. This directory must exist prior to mounting.<br><br><b><B>-o <I>&lt;options&gt;</I></B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A comma-separated list of mount options. These options are typically passed through <I>mount.fuse</I> to the <I>fusermount</I> utility and subsequently to the FUSE kernel module and the user-space FUSE daemon. Common FUSE-specific options include: <I>allow_other</I>, <I>default_permissions</I>, <I>ro</I> (read-only), <I>rw</I> (read-write), <I>user_id=ID</I>, <I>group_id=ID</I>, <I>nonempty</I>, <I>fsname=NAME</I>, <I>subtype=NAME</I>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<B>mount.fuse</B> is a specialized helper program used by the standard <B>mount(8)</B> command to facilitate the mounting of Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE) filesystems. Unlike most filesystem-specific mount helpers (e.g., <B>mount.nfs</B>, <B>mount.cifs</B>), <B>mount.fuse</B> doesn't directly implement the filesystem logic. Instead, it acts as an intermediary, forwarding the mount request and options to the <B>fusermount(1)</B> utility, which then handles the actual interaction with the FUSE kernel module and the user-space FUSE daemon. This architecture allows users to implement new filesystems without needing kernel-level privileges, as the core logic runs entirely in user space. <B>mount.fuse</B> is typically located in <I>/sbin/mount.fuse</I> and is invoked automatically by <B>mount</B> when the filesystem type <I>fuse</I> or <I>fuse.&lt;driver_name&gt;</I> is specified.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<B>mount.fuse</B> is generally not meant for direct user invocation. It's an internal helper used by the <B>mount(8)</B> command. Users should typically use <B>mount -t fuse...</B> or <B>fusermount</B> directly.<BR>Requires the FUSE kernel module to be loaded.<BR>Care must be taken with options like <I>allow_other</I> or <I>allow_root</I>, as they can have security implications by giving other users or root access to the mounted filesystem.<BR>Permissions: The <I>user_id</I> and <I>group_id</I> options are crucial for setting the ownership of files within the FUSE filesystem when mounted by root. When mounted by an unprivileged user via <I>fusermount</I>, the filesystem is typically only accessible by that user by default.


title: HELPER ROLE
content:
<I>mount.fuse</I> is not a standalone filesystem driver. It is a "mount helper" that gets executed by the <I>mount</I> command when a filesystem type starting with <I>fuse.</I> is specified (e.g., <I>mount -t fuse.sshfs</I>). Its primary function is to invoke <I>fusermount</I> with the appropriate arguments and options derived from the <I>mount</I> command line.


title: TYPICAL LOCATION
content:
This executable is typically found in <I>/sbin/mount.fuse</I>. The system's <I>mount</I> command searches for specific helpers (like <I>mount.ext4</I> for ext4 filesystems) in <I>/sbin</I> based on the <I>-t</I> (type) argument.


title: USER VS. ROOT MOUNTING
content:
While <I>mount.fuse</I> is predominantly used by the root user via <I>mount -t fuse...</I>, unprivileged users typically mount FUSE filesystems directly using <I>fusermount</I> (e.g., <I>sshfs user@host:/remote /local</I>), which bypasses <I>mount.fuse</I>. However, if an unprivileged user is permitted to use the <I>mount</I> command via <I>/etc/fstab</I> entries, <I>mount.fuse</I> would still be invoked.


title: HISTORY
content:
The FUSE (Filesystem in Userspace) project originated in 2002, developed by Miklos Szeredi, with the goal of allowing non-privileged users to create and mount new filesystems without modifying kernel code. The <B>mount.fuse</B> helper emerged as part of the FUSE ecosystem to integrate seamlessly with the standard Linux <B>mount(8)</B> command. Its role has remained consistent: to act as the bridge between <B>mount</B> and the <B>fusermount</B> utility, ensuring that FUSE filesystems can be managed using the familiar <B>mount</B> syntax. This integration has been pivotal in the widespread adoption of various user-space filesystems like <I>sshfs</I>, <I>ntfs-3g</I>, and many others.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><B>user</B>=<I>username</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the username for authentication on the SMB server. Often used with <B>pass</B> or a credentials file.<br><br><b><B>pass</B>=<I>password</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides the password for the specified user. It is generally recommended to use a credentials file for security reasons instead of directly on the command line or in <I>/etc/fstab</I>.<br><br><b><B>domain</B>=<I>domain_name</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the Windows domain or workgroup to authenticate against.<br><br><b><B>cred</B>=<I>filename</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Points to a file containing the username, password, and optionally domain. This is the most secure way to provide credentials.<br><br><b><B>vers</B>=<I>protocol_version</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the SMB protocol version to use (e.g., <I>3.0</I>, <I>3.02</I>, <I>3.1.1</I>). For <B>mount.smb3</B>, this is often implicitly set to 3.x or higher, but can be overridden for specific needs.<br><br><b><B>rw</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mounts the share in read/write mode.<br><br><b><B>ro</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mounts the share in read-only mode.<br><br><b><B>file_mode</B>=<I>mode</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the default file permissions (octal) for new files on the mounted share.<br><br><b><B>dir_mode</B>=<I>mode</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the default directory permissions (octal) for new directories on the mounted share.<br><br><b><B>uid</B>=<I>id</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the user ID (UID) that will own all files and directories on the mounted share, overriding the default.<br><br><b><B>gid</B>=<I>id</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the group ID (GID) that will own all files and directories on the mounted share, overriding the default.<br><br><b><B>seal</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables SMB3 encryption (SMB 3.1.1) for all data transferred over the connection, significantly enhancing security.<br><br><b><B>nounix</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables UNIX extensions. Useful when connecting to servers that don't fully support or implement them correctly, leading to more predictable behavior.<br><br><b><B>iocharset</B>=<I>charset</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the I/O character set for converting filenames to and from the server's encoding. Common values include <I>utf8</I>.<br><br><b><B>nofail</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Used in <I>/etc/fstab</I> to prevent the system from halting boot if the mount fails.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <B>mount.smb3</B> command is a specialized helper program designed to mount network file shares using the Server Message Block (SMB) protocol, specifically enforcing or defaulting to SMB version 3.x (SMB3). While often implemented as a symlink or wrapper script around the more general <B>mount.cifs</B> utility, its naming highlights its focus on modern SMB protocols. <B>mount.smb3</B> allows Linux systems to access files and directories on Windows servers or other SMB-enabled network-attached storage (NAS) devices that support SMB3.<br><br>SMB3 offers significant improvements over older versions, including enhanced security features like end-to-end encryption (<B>seal</B> option), improved signing, and better performance for large file transfers. It facilitates seamless integration of Linux clients into environments where Windows file sharing is prevalent, supporting various authentication methods, user and group ID mapping, and file permission handling. This command is part of the <B>cifs-utils</B> package, which provides the necessary tools for interacting with CIFS/SMB file systems.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The <B>mount.smb3</B> command relies on the <B>cifs-utils</B> package and the <B>cifs</B> kernel module. Ensure both are installed and loaded on your system. Directly embedding passwords on the command line or in <I>/etc/fstab</I> is a security risk; using a credentials file (<B>cred=</B> option) with restricted permissions is strongly recommended. Firewall rules on both the client and server must allow SMB traffic (typically TCP ports 139 and 445). Compatibility issues can arise with older SMB servers if SMB3 encryption is enforced, though <B>mount.smb3</B> is primarily for modern SMB setups.


title: PROTOCOL VERSIONING
content:
SMB3 encompasses several sub-versions (e.g., 3.0, 3.02, 3.1.1). While <B>mount.smb3</B> implies SMB3 usage, the <B>vers</B> option allows explicit control over the exact protocol version. The kernel module will negotiate the highest common version supported by both client and server, but <B>vers</B> can force a minimum or maximum. For security, always prefer the highest available version.


title: CREDENTIALS HANDLING
content:
Securely managing credentials is vital. Instead of <B>user</B> and <B>pass</B> on the command line or in <I>/etc/fstab</I>, create a credentials file (e.g., <I>~/.smbcredentials</I>) with content like:<br><I>username=myuser<br>password=mypass<br>domain=mydomain</I><br>Then, set its permissions strictly (e.g., <B>chmod 600 ~/.smbcredentials</B>) and use the <B>cred</B>=<I>filename</I> option when mounting.


title: HISTORY
content:
SMB (Server Message Block), originally known as CIFS (Common Internet File System), has been the de-facto standard for network file sharing in Windows environments for decades. Linux's support for SMB/CIFS evolved significantly over time. Early implementations like <B>smbfs</B> were replaced by the more robust <B>cifs</B> kernel module and user-space utilities in the <B>cifs-utils</B> package, which became the standard for mounting SMB/CIFS shares. The introduction of SMB2 and especially SMB3 brought crucial enhancements in performance, security (e.g., encryption, signing), and resilience. While <B>mount.cifs</B> provides general SMB/CIFS mounting capabilities, the conceptual or actual existence of <B>mount.smb3</B> as a wrapper or symlink emerged to specifically highlight and leverage the benefits of the SMB3 protocol, ensuring modern security and performance features are utilized by default or by explicit intention.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
The <I>mount.vboxsf</I> utility is typically invoked by the <I>mount(8)</I> command. The effective command syntax when mounting a VirtualBox shared folder is:<br><br><b>mount -t vboxsf <I>share_name</I> <I>mount_point</I> [-o <I>options</I>]</b><br><br>Where:<br><ul><li><I>share_name</I>: The name of the shared folder as configured in the VirtualBox Manager.</li><li><I>mount_point</I>: The directory within the guest OS where the shared folder will be mounted.</li><li><I>options</I>: A comma-separated list of mount options.</li></ul>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>uid=<id></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the owner User ID for all files and directories within the shared folder. Defaults to the UID of the user executing the <I>mount</I> command.<br><br><b>gid=<id></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the owner Group ID for all files and directories within the shared folder. Defaults to the GID of the user executing the <I>mount</I> command.<br><br><b>dmode=<octal></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the file mode (permissions) for directories in the shared folder. E.g., 'dmode=0755'.<br><br><b>fmode=<octal></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the file mode (permissions) for files in the shared folder. E.g., 'fmode=0644'.<br><br><b>iocharset=<charset></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the character set used for file names, useful for handling non-ASCII characters. Common values include 'utf8' or 'iso8859-1'.<br><br><b>ro</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mounts the shared folder as read-only, preventing any write operations from the guest.<br><br><b>rw</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mounts the shared folder as read-write (default behavior), allowing both read and write operations.<br><br><b>exec</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allows execution of files within the shared folder. This is the default behavior.<br><br><b>noexec</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents execution of files within the shared folder, enhancing security by disallowing arbitrary code execution.<br><br><b>automount</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When used in <I>/etc/fstab</I>, this option signals the <I>VBoxService</I> daemon to automatically mount the shared folder at boot time. This typically implies the share is also marked 'Auto-mount' in VirtualBox settings.<br><br><b>nofail</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When used in <I>/etc/fstab</I>, if the shared folder is not available at boot, the system boot process will continue without an error, preventing boot failures.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <I>mount.vboxsf</I> command is a specialized helper utility used by the standard <I>mount(8)</I> command to facilitate mounting shared folders from a VirtualBox host system into a Linux guest virtual machine. It is typically not invoked directly by the user, but rather automatically called by <I>mount</I> when the filesystem type (`-t`) is specified as <I>vboxsf</I>. This mechanism provides a convenient and seamless way to share files and directories between the host and guest operating systems, treating the shared host folder as a native filesystem within the guest environment. Its operation relies entirely on the presence and proper functioning of the VirtualBox Guest Additions installed within the guest OS, which provide the necessary kernel modules and user-space components for this inter-system communication.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li><b>VirtualBox Guest Additions Required:</b> The functionality of <I>mount.vboxsf</I> is entirely dependent on the VirtualBox Guest Additions being installed and running within the Linux guest OS. Without them, the <I>vboxsf</I> filesystem type will not be recognized.</li><li><b>Security Implications:</b> Care must be taken when using options like <I>exec</I> or broad <I>uid</I>/<I>gid</I> mappings, especially if the host content is untrusted. Mounting external content with execute permissions can pose a security risk.</li><li><b>Performance Considerations:</b> While convenient, VirtualBox shared folders may not offer the same I/O performance as native filesystems or other network file systems (e.g., NFS, Samba). For very high-performance I/O intensive tasks, alternative sharing methods might be more suitable.</li><li><b>Symbolic Link Behavior:</b> Handling of symbolic links within shared folders can sometimes be inconsistent or lead to unexpected behavior, especially when symlinks cross the host/guest boundary or point to paths outside the shared folder.</li></ul>


title: AUTOMATIC MOUNTING VIA /ETC/FSTAB
content:
Shared folders can be configured to automatically mount at boot by adding an entry to the guest's <I>/etc/fstab</I> file. A typical entry might look like: <br><br><I>share_name</I> <I>/mnt/shared</I> <I>vboxsf</I> <I>defaults,uid=1000,gid=1000,automount</I> <I>0 0</I><br><br>The <I>automount</I> option, when specified in <I>fstab</I>, leverages the <I>VBoxService</I> daemon to handle the actual mounting process, typically after the network and other essential services are initialized.


title: SHARE NAMING CONVENTION
content:
The <I>share_name</I> argument used in the <I>mount</I> command must precisely match the "Folder Name" configured for the shared folder in the VirtualBox Manager settings for the virtual machine. This name is case-sensitive, and any mismatch will result in a mount failure.


title: GUEST USER PERMISSIONS
content:
For a non-root user in the guest OS to be able to mount and access shared folders, that user typically needs to be a member of the <I>vboxsf</I> group. This group is usually created and the current user added to it during the VirtualBox Guest Additions installation. Users not in this group might encounter permission denied errors when attempting to mount or access the shared folder.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <I>mount.vboxsf</I> utility is an integral component of the VirtualBox Guest Additions, a suite of drivers and system applications designed to optimize the performance and usability of guest operating systems. The shared folder feature was introduced early in VirtualBox's development cycle as a fundamental mechanism for easy file exchange between host and guest. The <I>vboxsf</I> filesystem type and its associated <I>mount</I> helper (`mount.vboxsf`) were developed to integrate this functionality seamlessly with standard Linux filesystem mounting mechanisms. Its evolution has been closely tied to the development of VirtualBox itself, with continuous updates to support new kernel versions and improve stability and performance.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-n, --no-act</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Perform a dry run; do not actually mount, just show what would be done.<br><br><b>-r, --remount</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Attempt to remount all filesystems if already mounted.<br><br><b>-k, --kernel-modules</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Load required kernel modules for filesystems before mounting.<br><br><b>-v, --verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Produce verbose output during execution, showing detailed steps.<br><br><b>-g, --ignore-root</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Ignore the root filesystem (/) during the mounting process. Useful in specific boot scenarios.<br><br><b>-f, --force</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force operations, attempting to ignore certain errors that would normally halt execution.<br><br><b>-c <I>FILE</I>, --config <I>FILE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify an alternate configuration file to use instead of the default <i>/etc/fstab</i>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mountall</b> is a utility, primarily part of the <i>Upstart</i> init system, responsible for mounting filesystems listed in <i>/etc/fstab</i> during the system boot process. It ensures that necessary filesystems (like /, /usr, /var, /tmp, etc.) are available before the system fully comes online.<br><br>Unlike <b>mount -a</b>, <b>mountall</b> was designed to handle specific <i>Upstart</i>-related functionalities, such as waiting for specific devices or network configurations, and integrating seamlessly with <i>Upstart</i> jobs. Its main purpose was to orchestrate the mounting of filesystems in the correct order and at the appropriate boot stage, considering dependencies and error handling. While it shares some functionality with <b>mount -a</b>, <b>mountall</b> was typically invoked by <i>Upstart</i> itself during the early boot sequence and was not commonly used interactively by users. Its use has largely diminished as <i>systemd</i> has replaced <i>Upstart</i> as the dominant init system in most Linux distributions, where <i>systemd</i> handles filesystem mounting using its own mechanisms (e.g., <i>.mount</i> units).


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mountall</b> is primarily associated with the <i>Upstart</i> init system. Most modern Linux distributions (e.g., Fedora, Debian, Ubuntu since 15.04) have transitioned to <i>systemd</i>, which handles filesystem mounting through its own <i>.mount</i> units and <i>fstab</i> processing (e.g., <i>systemd-fstab-generator</i>).<br><br>Consequently, <b>mountall</b> is <b>deprecated</b> or entirely absent on many current systems. Attempting to use it might result in "command not found" errors or unexpected behavior.<br><br>It was primarily an internal boot utility, not intended for interactive user use.


title: INTEGRATION WITH BOOT PROCESS
content:
<i>mountall</i> was typically invoked by <i>Upstart</i> jobs, usually in the <i>mountall-filesystems</i> and <i>mountall-net</i> stages during system boot. It would read the entries in <i>/etc/fstab</i> and mount filesystems with the <i>auto</i> option, paying special attention to options like <i>_netdev</i> for network-dependent mounts and handling <i>nofail</i> options to prevent boot failures for non-critical mounts.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mountall</b> was developed as part of the <i>Upstart</i> init system, which gained prominence in distributions like Ubuntu (starting from version 6.10, "Edgy Eft") as a replacement for the traditional <i>SysVinit</i>. <i>Upstart</i> aimed to provide faster and more robust boot processes by using event-driven mechanisms. <b>mountall</b> played a crucial role in this architecture, orchestrating filesystem mounts.<br><br>However, with the rise of <i>systemd</i> (first adopted by Fedora 15 in 2011, and later by most major distributions, including Debian and Ubuntu), <i>Upstart's</i> adoption waned. <i>systemd</i> provides its own comprehensive system for managing mounts, making <b>mountall</b> largely obsolete. Ubuntu, a primary proponent of <i>Upstart</i>, switched to <i>systemd</i> for desktop and server editions starting with 15.04 ("Vivid Vervet"), effectively sidelining <b>mountall</b>.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<code>mountpoint [<i>options</i>] <i>directory</i>|<br>mountpoint [<i>options</i>] --devno <i>major</i>:<i>minor</i>|<br>mountpoint [<i>options</i>] --fsname <i>device</i></code>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-d</b>, <b>--debug</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints debug information to standard error.<br><br><b><b>-q</b>, <b>--quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses all messages, returning only an exit status. This is commonly used in scripts.<br><br><b><b>-k</b>, <b>--kernel</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Checks the kernel mount table (<i>/proc/mounts</i> or <i>/etc/mtab</i>) in addition to <i>stat(2)</i> information. This is the default behavior.<br><br><b><b>-n</b>, <b>--no-mtab</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Checks <i>stat(2)</i> information only, specifically comparing the device ID (<i>st_dev</i>) of the target and its parent. It skips checking the kernel mount table.<br><br><b><b>-x</b>, <b>--devno</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the device number of the given mountpoint in `major:minor` format.<br><br><b><b>--devno</b> <i>major</i>:<i>minor</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Checks if the filesystem identified by the specified device number is mounted.<br><br><b><b>--fsname</b> <i>device</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Checks if the filesystem identified by the specified device name (e.g., <i>/dev/sda1</i>) is mounted.<br><br><b><b>-V</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays version information and exits.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The `mountpoint` command is a simple yet powerful utility used to determine if a specified <i>directory</i> or <i>file</i> is the root of a mounted filesystem. It returns an exit status of 0 if the path is a mountpoint, and 1 if it is not, making it ideal for use in shell scripts where programmatic checks are needed.<br><br>By default, `mountpoint` checks both the <i>stat(2)</i> information (comparing the device ID, <i>st_dev</i>, of the given path with its parent directory) and the kernel's mount table (typically <i>/proc/mounts</i> or <i>/etc/mtab</i>). This dual check ensures accuracy, identifying both standard mounts and bind mounts. It can also be used to check if a specific block device or filesystem name is currently mounted. This command is invaluable for system administrators and scripters to ensure that operations like unmounting or cleaning up only proceed when a path is confirmed to be a filesystem boundary.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li><b>Symbolic Links</b>: When provided with a path that is a symbolic link, `mountpoint` checks the <i>resolved</i> path, not the symlink itself.</li><li><b>Root Filesystem</b>: The root directory (<i>/</i>) is always considered a mountpoint for the root filesystem, so `mountpoint /` will typically return success (0).</li><li><b>Bind Mounts</b>: `mountpoint` correctly identifies bind mounts as mountpoints.</li><li><b>Files vs. Directories</b>: While primarily used for directories, `mountpoint` can theoretically check a file. However, for a file to be a mountpoint, a filesystem must be mounted directly onto that file, which is an uncommon setup (e.g., a loop device mounted directly on a file).</li></ul>


title: EXIT STATUS
content:
The command's exit status is crucial for scripting:<br><ul><li><code>0</code>: The specified path <i>is</i> a mountpoint.</li><li><code>1</code>: The specified path is <i>not</i> a mountpoint.</li><li><code>>1</code>: An error occurred (e.g., invalid arguments, path not found).</li></ul>


title: HISTORY
content:
The `mountpoint` command is a part of the <i>util-linux</i> package, a collection of essential system utilities for Linux. Its core functionality, which relies on inspecting device IDs and the kernel mount table, has remained stable and largely unchanged over time. It has been a reliable tool for scripting and system administration for many years, reflecting its fundamental utility in managing and querying filesystem states.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--disable-all</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disable all mouse accessibility features managed by mousetweaks.<br><br><b>--enable-all</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable all mouse accessibility features managed by mousetweaks.<br><br><b>--set-dwell-click-time=<i>MS</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the time (in milliseconds) the pointer must hover before a dwell click occurs.<br><br><b>--set-dwell-click-type=<i>TYPE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the dwell click action (e.g., <i>single, double, drag, secondary</i>).<br><br><b>--set-dwell-click-threshold=<i>PX</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the threshold of movement (in pixels) before a dwell click is cancelled.<br><br><b>--set-dwell-click-hide-window</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hide the visual dwell click window or indicator.<br><br><b>--set-dwell-click-show-window</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show the visual dwell click window or indicator.<br><br><b>--set-dwell-click-use-sound</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable/disable an auditory cue when a dwell click occurs.<br><br><b>--set-dwell-click-gesture-size=<i>PX</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the size (in pixels) of the dwell click gestures.<br><br><b>--set-dwell-click-gesture-time=<i>MS</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the time (in milliseconds) before a dwell click gesture is detected.<br><br><b>--set-click-assist-timeout=<i>MS</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the timeout (in milliseconds) before a secondary click assist is activated.<br><br><b>--set-click-assist-type=<i>TYPE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the click assist action (e.g., <i>primary, secondary, drag</i>).<br><br><b>--status</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display the current status of all mousetweaks features.<br><br><b>-v, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show the version information of mousetweaks.<br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a brief help message with common options.<br><br><b>--help-all</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show all help options, including generic GTK+ and X display options.<br><br><b>--help-gtk</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show GTK+ specific options related to the application.<br><br><b>--display=<i>DISPLAY</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the X display to use for the application.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mousetweaks</i> is a <i>GNOME accessibility</i> application designed to enhance mouse interaction for users, particularly those with motor impairments. It provides two primary features: <b>Dwell Click</b> and <b>Click Assist</b>.<br><br><b>Dwell Click</b> enables users to perform mouse clicks by simply hovering the pointer over an element for a specified duration, eliminating the need for physical button presses. This can be configured for single, double, drag, or secondary (right) clicks. It includes options to adjust dwell time, movement threshold, and visual/auditory feedback.<br><br><b>Click Assist</b> simplifies complex mouse operations. For example, it can assist with secondary clicks by making them easier to activate, or with drag-and-drop actions by providing a "drag lock" feature. This reduces the physical effort and precision required for intricate mouse gestures.<br><br><i>mousetweaks</i> integrates seamlessly with the GNOME desktop, allowing these accessibility settings to be managed both via the command line and through the graphical <i>GNOME Control Center</i> under accessibility options. It plays a crucial role in making the GNOME environment more inclusive and accessible.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The functionality of <i>mousetweaks</i> is closely integrated with the <i>GNOME desktop environment</i> and primarily designed for <i>X11</i>. Its behavior or availability may vary in non-GNOME environments or with <i>Wayland</i> display servers. Changes made via the command line might require a session restart for full effect if the <i>mousetweaks</i> daemon isn't running or doesn't pick up changes dynamically. It may also conflict with other third-party mouse customization or accessibility tools.


title: DWELL CLICK MECHANISM
content:
<b>Dwell Click</b> eliminates the need for physical mouse button presses. When enabled, users simply hold the mouse pointer motionless over a target area for a predefined <i>dwell time</i>. After this duration, <i>mousetweaks</i> automatically simulates a click action, which can be configured as a single click, double click, drag operation, or secondary (right) click. It also features a customizable movement <i>threshold</i> to prevent accidental clicks if the pointer jitters slightly.


title: CLICK ASSIST FEATURES
content:
<b>Click Assist</b> provides supplementary tools to simplify complex mouse gestures. It can assist with secondary clicks by making them easier to activate, often through a brief pause after a primary click or a specific gesture. It also supports <i>drag lock</i>, where a drag operation can be initiated and maintained without continuously holding down a mouse button, making drag-and-drop much less strenuous for users with limited dexterity.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mousetweaks</i> is a component of the broader <i>GNOME accessibility framework</i>. Its development aligns with GNOME's commitment to providing universal access features, evolving over time to offer robust solutions for users with varying motor capabilities. It reflects ongoing efforts to make the desktop environment inclusive and user-friendly for everyone.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mozillavpn</b> <i>&lt;command&gt;</i> [<i>&lt;options&gt;</i>]<br><br>Examples:<br><i>mozillavpn connect</i><br><i>mozillavpn status</i><br><i>mozillavpn locations</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>connect</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Establishes a VPN connection. Optionally accepts a location to connect to a specific server.<br><br><b>disconnect</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Terminates the active VPN connection.<br><br><b>status</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the current VPN connection status, including connected location and duration.<br><br><b>locations</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lists all available VPN server locations that you can connect to.<br><br><b>account</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Manages user account operations, such as logging in or out of your Mozilla VPN subscription.<br><br><b>settings</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Configures various VPN client settings, like enabling auto-connect on startup or managing the network kill switch.<br><br><b>help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows help information for the main command or a specific subcommand.<br><br><b>version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the installed Mozilla VPN client version.<br><br><b>--help, -h</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays general help message and a list of available commands.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mozillavpn</b> command-line interface (CLI) provides a powerful way to interact with and manage your Mozilla VPN client on Linux systems.<br><br>It allows users to perform various actions directly from the terminal, such as connecting to or disconnecting from the VPN, checking the current connection status, listing available server locations, and managing account details. This CLI tool is particularly useful for automation, scripting, and for users who prefer a text-based interface over a graphical one. It integrates with the underlying Mozilla VPN application, providing control over its core functionalities, including connection management, DNS settings, and the network kill switch. The command aims to give users comprehensive control over their privacy and security settings provided by the Mozilla VPN service.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The <b>mozillavpn</b> command requires the Mozilla VPN client application to be installed and configured on your Linux system. Some operations, particularly connection management, might require appropriate user permissions or interaction with a system service that has elevated privileges. Ensure you are logged into your Mozilla VPN account for full functionality.


title: AUTOMATION AND SCRIPTING
content:
The CLI's primary advantage is its suitability for automation. Users can write shell scripts to automatically connect to the VPN on system startup, switch locations based on a schedule, or monitor connection status for reporting purposes, enhancing productivity and security management.


title: UNDERLYING TECHNOLOGY
content:
Mozilla VPN utilizes the <I>WireGuard</I> protocol, known for its modern cryptography, high performance, and streamlined codebase. The <b>mozillavpn</b> command interacts with the client, which in turn manages the WireGuard tunnels, providing a secure and efficient VPN connection.


title: HISTORY
content:
Mozilla VPN, initially launched as 'Mozilla Firefox Private Network' in 2019 and rebranded in 2020, is a VPN service developed by Mozilla. The command-line interface for Linux was introduced to provide more flexibility and integration options for users and system administrators who prefer or require scripting capabilities. Its development focuses on ease of use while leveraging underlying open-source technologies like WireGuard for secure and fast connections.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>-N</i> (e.g., -1, -2, -4, -8)</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the number of logical pages to print per physical sheet of paper (e.g., 2 for two-up, 4 for four-up).<br><br><b><i>-o &lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Directs the PostScript output to the specified <i>file</i> instead of standard output.<br><br><b><i>-l</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the output in landscape orientation.<br><br><b><i>-p</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the output in portrait orientation (often the default).<br><br><b><i>-f &lt;font&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the font family to be used for the text.<br><br><b><i>-s &lt;size&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the font size in points.<br><br><b><i>-T &lt;title&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a title to be displayed in the page header.<br><br><b><i>-m &lt;margin&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the margins for the printed pages (e.g., in PostScript points or inches).<br><br><b><i>-L &lt;lines&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the number of lines per logical page.<br><br><b><i>-A &lt;paper_size&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the paper size (e.g., 'A4', 'letter').<br><br><b><i>-C &lt;cols&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the number of columns per logical page for multi-column layouts.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mpage</b> is a command-line utility designed to prepare plain text files for efficient printing, specifically by arranging multiple logical pages onto a single physical sheet of paper. This process is commonly known as "N-up" printing (e.g., 2-up, 4-up). It reads input from specified files or standard input and generates PostScript output.<br><br>Beyond simply arranging pages, <b>mpage</b> typically offers options to control formatting aspects such as margins, headers, footers, page numbering, font selection, and paper size. It is particularly useful for saving paper when printing source code, log files, drafts, or documentation. While its core functionality is to format text into PostScript, it often works in conjunction with other printing utilities like <b>lp</b> or <b>lpr</b> to send the generated output to a printer. Historically, <b>mpage</b> or similar tools were essential for optimizing print jobs in Unix-like environments before advanced printer drivers became commonplace.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The <b>mpage</b> command is an older utility and may not be pre-installed on many modern Linux distributions, often having been superseded by more comprehensive tools like <b>a2ps</b> or <b>enscript</b>. Implementations and available options can vary. It primarily outputs PostScript, requiring a compatible printer or viewer to render the output.


title: OUTPUT FORMAT
content:
The <b>mpage</b> command generates its output in PostScript format. This makes it highly portable across different systems and printers that support PostScript. The generated PostScript can be piped to other commands, saved to a file, or directly sent to a PostScript-compatible printer or a PostScript viewer (such as Ghostscript or Evince).


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mpage</b> emerged as a utility in early Unix and Linux environments to provide efficient text printing capabilities, particularly the ability to print multiple logical pages on a single physical sheet of paper. Its development was driven by the need to optimize paper usage and streamline document output before the widespread adoption of advanced GUI-based word processors and sophisticated printer drivers. While its standalone usage has declined, its core functionality is still highly relevant and has been integrated into or superseded by more feature-rich printing and text-to-PostScript converters like <b>a2ps</b> and <b>enscript</b>.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<I>mpartition</I> [options] <I>device</I> <I>type</I> [size]<br><I>mpartition</I> <I>device</I> -D <I>partition</I><br><I>mpartition</I> <I>device</I> -P<br><I>mpartition</I> <I>device</I> -a <I>partition</I><br><I>mpartition</I> <I>device</I> -i <I>partition</I>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><I>device</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The device file (e.g., <I>/dev/sdb</I>) or disk image file to operate on.<br><br><b><I>type</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The partition type (e.g., <I>primary</I>, <I>extended</I>), often used in conjunction with type-specific flags.<br><br><b><I>size</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The size of the partition, specified either in sectors with <B>-s</B> or megabytes with <B>-m</B>.<br><br><b>-I</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Initializes the disk, destroying any existing MBR and creating an empty partition table. Use with extreme caution.<br><br><b>-0</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instructs <I>mpartition</I> not to create a primary partition, useful when only creating extended partitions.<br><br><b>-p</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates a primary partition. This is the default if no <B>-e</B> or <B>-E</B> is specified.<br><br><b>-e</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates an extended partition.<br><br><b>-E</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates an extended partition that is not marked as Win95 LBA (type 0Fh), suitable for older DOS systems.<br><br><b>-s <I>sectors</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the size of the partition in disk sectors.<br><br><b>-m <I>MB</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the size of the partition in megabytes.<br><br><b>-D <I>partition_number</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Deletes the specified partition number.<br><br><b>-P</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the current partition table of the specified device.<br><br><b>-a <I>partition_number</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Marks the specified partition as active (bootable).<br><br><b>-i <I>partition_number</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Marks the specified partition as inactive.<br><br><b>-t <I>type_code</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the partition type code (e.g., <I>0b</I> for FAT32, <I>0c</I> for FAT32 LBA) in hexadecimal.<br><br><b>-f</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces the creation even if the disk appears too small for the requested partition.<br><br><b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, showing more details about the operation.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<I>mpartition</I> is a utility from the <I>mtools</I> suite designed to create, delete, and modify partition table entries specifically for MS-DOS filesystems. Unlike general-purpose disk partitioning tools like <I>fdisk</I> or <I>parted</I>, <I>mpartition</I> focuses on the MBR (Master Boot Record) and is primarily intended for managing partitions on devices or disk images that will host MS-DOS or FAT-based filesystems. It allows users to set a partition as active, specify its size in sectors or MB, and define its partition type.<br><br>Its usage is quite specialized, typically employed when preparing floppy disks, USB drives, or disk image files for use with legacy DOS systems or emulators, rather than for modern hard disk partitioning on Linux. It operates directly on the raw device or file.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<I>mpartition</I> is part of the <I>mtools</I> suite, designed primarily for MS-DOS compatible filesystems. It is generally not suitable for managing partitions for modern Linux, Windows, or other non-DOS operating systems on primary hard drives. <br><br>It operates directly on the Master Boot Record (MBR) and should be used with extreme caution, as incorrect usage can lead to data loss or an unbootable system. <br><br>It does not create filesystems; it only modifies the partition table. You will need to use a tool like <I>mkfs.fat</I> (or <I>mkdosfs</I>) after creating the partition. <br><br>It is not designed for GPT (GUID Partition Table) disks, only MBR.


title: DIRECT MBR MODIFICATION
content:
<I>mpartition</I> directly modifies the Master Boot Record (MBR) on the specified device or file. This means it bypasses any operating system level partitioning abstractions and operates at a very low level. This direct interaction grants power but also carries significant risk of data corruption if misused.


title: PURPOSE AND WORKFLOW
content:
Its primary purpose is to set up a partition table entry on a raw disk or image <B>before</B> a filesystem is created on that partition, specifically for FAT-based systems. It does not handle filesystem creation itself; after using <I>mpartition</I>, a separate tool like <I>mkfs.fat</I> is needed to format the newly created partition.


title: HISTORY
content:
<I>mpartition</I> is a component of the <I>mtools</I> software package, which originated in the early days of Linux (and Unix-like systems) to provide utilities for interacting with MS-DOS filesystems. As DOS compatibility was crucial for many users, <I>mtools</I> filled a significant gap by allowing seamless access and manipulation of FAT-formatted floppies and hard drive partitions without requiring a DOS installation. <I>mpartition</I> specifically addressed the need to prepare partitions for these DOS environments, particularly for floppy disks and early hard drives. Its usage has become more niche over time, now primarily serving legacy system support, virtualization, and embedded systems that still rely on FAT partitions.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays help message for <i>mpc</i>.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows version information for <i>mpc</i>.<br><br><b><b>-q</b>, <b>--quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses output from some <i>mpc</i> commands.<br><br><b><b>-f</b>, <b>--format</b> <i>&lt;format&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies output format for 'current' and 'playlist' commands using <i>MPD</i> tag syntax.<br><br><b><b>--host</b> <i>&lt;host&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Connects to the specified <i>MPD</i> host (e.g., '<i>password@hostname</i>').<br><br><b><b>--port</b> <i>&lt;port&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Connects to the specified <i>MPD</i> port (default 6600).<br><br><b><b>add</b> <i>&lt;URI&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds a URI or path to the current <i>MPD</i> playlist.<br><br><b><b>clear</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Clears the current <i>MPD</i> playlist.<br><br><b><b>current</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the currently playing song's information.<br><br><b><b>next</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Plays the next song in the playlist.<br><br><b><b>pause</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Pauses playback of the current song.<br><br><b><b>play</b> [<i>&lt;position&gt;</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts playback, optionally at a specific playlist position.<br><br><b><b>prev</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Plays the previous song in the playlist.<br><br><b><b>rm</b> <i>&lt;position&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Removes a song from the playlist by its position.<br><br><b><b>search</b> <i>&lt;type&gt; &lt;query&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Searches the <i>MPD</i> database for songs matching the query (e.g., '<i>artist The Beatles</i>').<br><br><b><b>status</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the current status of <i>MPD</i> (e.g., playback state, volume).<br><br><b><b>stop</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Stops playback.<br><br><b><b>toggle</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Toggles between play and pause states.<br><br><b><b>update</b> [<i>&lt;path&gt;</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Updates the <i>MPD</i> music database, optionally for a specific path.<br><br><b><b>volume</b> <i>&lt;+/-value&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adjusts the master volume (e.g., '<i>+5</i>', '<i>-10</i>', '<i>75</i>').<br><br><b><b>playlist</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the content of the current <i>MPD</i> playlist.<br><br><b><b>random</b> <i>&lt;on|off&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables or disables random playback mode.<br><br><b><b>repeat</b> <i>&lt;on|off&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables or disables repeat playback mode.<br><br><b><b>shuffle</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shuffles the current <i>MPD</i> playlist.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mpc</i> (Music Player Command) is a lightweight, intuitive command-line client for interacting with the Music Player Daemon (<i>MPD</i>). It allows users to control an <i>MPD</i> instance, managing music playback, playlists, and daemon settings directly from the terminal. <i>mpc</i> can play, pause, stop, skip tracks, add and remove songs from the playlist, search the music database, adjust volume, and configure various <i>MPD</i> playback options like repeat, random, and crossfade. It's an essential tool for users who prefer a minimalist interface or want to script <i>MPD</i> control. Its simplicity and robust functionality make it a popular choice for remote <i>MPD</i> control or integration into shell scripts.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Requires a running Music Player Daemon (<i>MPD</i>) instance to connect to.<br>By default, <i>mpc</i> attempts to connect to <i>localhost:6600</i>.<br>Environment variables <i>MPD_HOST</i> and <i>MPD_PORT</i> can override default connection settings.<br>Password-protected <i>MPD</i> instances require the password either in <i>MPD_HOST</i> or with the <i>--host</i> option.


title: ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
content:
<i>mpc</i> can use the following environment variables to configure its connection to <i>MPD</i>:<br><b>MPD_HOST</b>: Specifies the hostname or IP address of the <i>MPD</i> server. Can include a password (e.g., '<i>password@host</i>').<br><b>MPD_PORT</b>: Specifies the port number of the <i>MPD</i> server (default is <i>6600</i>).<br>These variables provide a convenient way to configure <i>mpc</i> without specifying host/port for every command.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mpc</i> has been an integral part of the <i>MPD</i> ecosystem since its early days, providing a simple yet powerful command-line interface. It has evolved alongside <i>MPD</i>, maintaining its role as the de facto official client for basic command-line control and scripting, reflecting <i>MPD</i>'s philosophy of daemon-based music playback.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays help information and exits.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays version information and exits.<br><br><b>--no-daemon</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents <i>mpd</i> from detaching from the console; runs in the foreground.<br><br><b>--kill</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sends a SIGTERM signal to a running MPD instance, typically used to stop it gracefully.<br><br><b>--verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Increases the verbosity of log messages output to stdout/stderr.<br><br><b>--stdout</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Directs log messages to standard output instead of a configured log file.<br><br><b>--stderr</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Directs log messages to standard error instead of a configured log file.<br><br><b>config_file</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative path to the configuration file. Defaults to <i>~/.config/mpd/mpd.conf</i> or <i>/etc/mpd.conf</i>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mpd</i> (Music Player Daemon) is a flexible, server-side application for playing audio files.<br><br>It runs as a daemon in the background, managing a library of music files and playing them according to commands received from client applications. This daemon/client architecture allows users to control music playback remotely from various devices and interfaces (e.g., desktop clients, mobile apps, command-line tools).<br><br>Key features include gapless playback, support for various audio formats (FLAC, MP3, Ogg Vorbis, etc.), streaming capabilities, and a robust playlist management system. <i>mpd</i> aims to be resource-efficient and provide a stable, continuous music playback service, independent of the graphical environment.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mpd</i> is a daemon; it typically runs in the background without a direct user interface. Interaction requires a separate client application. Proper configuration via <i>mpd.conf</i> is crucial for its operation, including music directory, audio output, and network settings. By default, it might listen on localhost, requiring specific configuration for remote access if you intend to control it from another machine.


title: <B>CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE</B>
content:
MPD operates on a strict client-server model. The <i>mpd</i> daemon handles all music playback, library management, and streaming. Clients (like <i>mpc</i>, <i>ncmpcpp</i>, graphical clients, or mobile apps) connect to the daemon, send commands (e.g., play, pause, add to playlist), and receive status updates. This separation allows for headless server setups, remote control, and multiple clients accessing the same music server simultaneously.


title: <B>CONFIGURATION FILE</B>
content:
The behavior of <i>mpd</i> is primarily controlled by its configuration file, typically <i>mpd.conf</i>. This file specifies critical parameters such as the directories containing music files (<i>music_directory</i>), playlists (<i>playlist_directory</i>), database (<i>db_file</i>), log file (<i>log_file</i>), and crucial audio output settings (<i>audio_output</i> section, defining ALSA, PulseAudio, or other outputs). Correctly configuring this file is essential for MPD to function as intended.


title: HISTORY
content:
MPD was initially developed by Warren Woodford, with its first public release appearing around 2003. It was created to provide a lightweight, stable, and network-transparent music playback solution, addressing limitations of existing players that were often tied to graphical environments or lacked robust remote control capabilities. Over the years, it has gained significant popularity within the Linux community for its flexibility, extensibility, and stable daemon architecture, becoming a de-facto standard for server-side music management.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<br><b><code>mpg123 [<i>options</i>] <i>file(s) | URL(s)</i></code></b><br><b><code>mpg123 -@ <i>playlist_file</i> [<i>options</i>]</code></b>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b><code>-v</code></b>, <b><code>--verbose</code></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Increases the verbosity of output messages, showing more details about decoding and playback.<br><br><b><b><code>-q</code></b>, <b><code>--quiet</code></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses most output messages, keeping the console clean during playback.<br><br><b><b><code>-s</code></b>, <b><code>--stdout</code></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Writes raw PCM audio data to standard output instead of playing it through the sound device. Useful for piping to other tools.<br><br><b><b><code>-w</code></b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i>, <b><code>--wav</code></b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Decodes the MP3 and writes the output to a WAV file specified by <i>&lt;file&gt;</i>.<br><br><b><b><code>-o</code></b> <i>&lt;module&gt;</i>, <b><code>--output</code></b> <i>&lt;module&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the audio output module (e.g., alsa, oss, pulseaudio, jack) to use for playback.<br><br><b><b><code>-a</code></b> <i>&lt;device&gt;</i>, <b><code>--audiodevice</code></b> <i>&lt;device&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Selects a specific audio device for output within the chosen module (e.g., hw:0,0 for ALSA).<br><br><b><b><code>-Z</code></b>, <b><code>--shuffle</code></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shuffles the playlist or provided files randomly before playback begins.<br><br><b><b><code>-B</code></b> <i>&lt;size&gt;</i>, <b><code>--buffer</code></b> <i>&lt;size&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the output buffer size in kilobytes. Larger buffers can help prevent skips on slower systems or over networks.<br><br><b><b><code>-l</code></b> <i>&lt;N&gt;</i>, <b><code>--loop</code></b> <i>&lt;N&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Loops the entire playlist or single file <i>&lt;N&gt;</i> times. Use 0 for infinite loop.<br><br><b><b><code>-@</code></b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i>, <b><code>--list</code></b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Reads a list of files or URLs to play from the specified <i>&lt;file&gt;</i>, with one path per line.<br><br><b><b><code>--volume</code></b> <i>&lt;factor&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the output volume. A factor of 100 means 100% volume; values above 100 amplify the sound.<br><br><b><b><code>-t</code></b>, <b><code>--test</code></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Decodes the MP3 file without producing any audio output, useful for performance testing or validating files.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<br><i>mpg123</i> is a classic, lightweight, and fast command-line MP3 player for Unix-like operating systems. Developed initially by Michael Hipp, it was one of the first widely adopted console-based MP3 decoders and players. Its primary strength lies in its efficiency and minimal resource consumption, making it ideal for low-resource environments, servers, scripting, and embedded systems where a graphical interface is not required or desired.<br><br><i>mpg123</i> decodes MP3 audio streams and outputs them directly to the system's sound device, supporting various audio backends like ALSA, OSS, PulseAudio, and JACK. It can play local files, streams from URLs, and even raw PCM data to standard output for further processing. While it lacks the visual bells and whistles of modern GUI media players, its simplicity and robust performance have ensured its continued relevance among system administrators, developers, and users who prefer command-line tools for their reliability and scriptability. Recent developments have also brought features like gapless playback and improved streaming capabilities.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mpg123</i> is a dedicated MP3 player; it does <b>not</b> support video playback or other multimedia formats like Ogg Vorbis (use <i>ogg123</i> for that).<br><br>While highly efficient, its playback quality can be affected by the underlying audio system's configuration (e.g., ALSA or PulseAudio settings).<br><br>As a command-line tool, it offers no interactive graphical user interface for playlist management, visualizations, or complex audio effects.


title: EXIT STATUS
content:
<i>mpg123</i> exits with a status of 0 upon successful completion of playback or operation. A non-zero exit status indicates an error occurred (e.g., file not found, decoding error, audio device issue), which is highly useful for error handling in shell scripts.


title: USAGE IN SCRIPTS
content:
Due to its command-line nature and predictable behavior, <i>mpg123</i> is frequently used in shell scripts for background audio playback, system sound notifications, or as part of automated audio processing pipelines. Its <b><code>-s</code></b> (<b><code>--stdout</code></b>) option is particularly useful for piping decoded audio to other tools like <i>sox</i> for format conversion or manipulation.


title: HISTORY
content:
<br><i>mpg123</i> originated in the late 1990s, developed by Michael Hipp, quickly becoming a staple in the Unix/Linux world due to its groundbreaking ability to play MP3s from the command line efficiently. At a time when computing resources were often limited, its minimal footprint and speed were significant advantages, establishing it as a go-to solution for lightweight audio playback.<br><br>After a period of reduced activity, the project was revitalized by a new development team, ensuring its continued maintenance and evolution. This revival brought modern features like gapless playback, improved streaming support, and broader compatibility with various audio backends, solidifying its place as a reliable and widely used tool for audio playback in scripting, servers, and embedded environments.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
<b><code>ogg123(1)</code></b>: Command-line Ogg Vorbis player., <b><code>madplay(1)</code></b>: Another command-line MP3 player., <b><code>sox(1)</code></b>: Sound eXchange, a universal audio file format converter and effects processor., <b><code>aplay(1)</code></b>: Simple ALSA command-line player., <b><code>mplayer(1)</code></b>: A versatile movie and music player for Linux.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mpg321</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>] <i>&lt;file(s) | URL(s)&gt;</i><br><b>mpg321</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>] <i>-C</i><br><b>mpg321</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>] <i>-L &lt;playlist_file&gt;</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>-h</i>, <i>--help</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits.<br><br><b><i>-q</i>, <i>--quiet</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses most messages during playback.<br><br><b><i>-v</i>, <i>--verbose</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Increases verbosity, printing more information.<br><br><b><i>-g &lt;gain&gt;</i>, <i>--gain &lt;gain&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the audio gain factor (e.g., 50 for 50%).<br><br><b><i>-s</i>, <i>--stdout</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Writes raw PCM audio output to standard output.<br><br><b><i>-w &lt;file&gt;</i>, <i>--wav &lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Writes the decoded audio to a specified WAV file instead of playing it.<br><br><b><i>-o &lt;driver&gt;</i>, <i>--output &lt;driver&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the audio output driver (e.g., <i>alsa</i>, <i>oss</i>, <i>pulse</i>).<br><br><b><i>-a &lt;device&gt;</i>, <i>--audiodevice &lt;device&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the audio device to use (e.g., <i>hw:0,0</i> for ALSA).<br><br><b><i>-Z</i>, <i>--shuffle</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shuffles the order of files when playing multiple inputs.<br><br><b><i>-C</i>, <i>--control</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables interactive control mode via keyboard input during playback.<br><br><b><i>-L &lt;file&gt;</i>, <i>--list &lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Plays files listed in the specified playlist file.<br><br><b><i>-l &lt;count&gt;</i>, <i>--loop &lt;count&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Loops the playback for the specified number of times (0 for infinite).<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mpg321</b> is a lightweight, command-line MP3 player for Unix-like operating systems. It was initially developed as a free and open-source alternative to the popular <b>mpg123</b> player during a period when <b>mpg123</b> faced patent licensing issues related to MP3 decoding. Built for efficiency and simplicity, <b>mpg321</b> allows users to play MP3 audio files directly from the terminal, making it ideal for servers, embedded systems, or scripts where a graphical interface is not available or desired.<br><br>It supports playing single files, multiple files, directories, or playlists, and can output audio through various drivers like ALSA, OSS, or PulseAudio, depending on its compilation. While <b>mpg321</b> served a vital role in the free software community, <b>mpg123</b> has since become free itself, leading to <b>mpg321</b> often being a symbolic link or a slightly modified wrapper around <b>mpg123</b> on modern systems.


title: CAVEATS
content:
On many modern Linux distributions, <b>mpg321</b> is often a symbolic link to <b>mpg123</b> or a wrapper around it, meaning their behavior and options can be identical. Its interactive control features are minimal compared to GUI players. Proper audio driver configuration is essential for playback.


title: INTERACTIVE PLAYBACK CONTROL
content:
When running <b>mpg321</b> in control mode (e.g., with the <i>-C</i> option), it provides interactive keyboard controls. Users can typically pause/resume (<i>'p'</i>), stop (<i>'s'</i>), seek forward/backward, and adjust volume (<i>'+'</i>/<i>'-'</i>) directly from the terminal during playback.


title: AUDIO OUTPUT DRIVERS
content:
<b>mpg321</b> supports various audio output drivers, such as ALSA (Advanced Linux Sound Architecture), OSS (Open Sound System), and PulseAudio. The desired driver can often be specified using the <i>-o</i> or <i>--output</i> option, allowing flexibility in audio routing based on system configuration and installed libraries.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mpg321</b> emerged as a significant project within the free software community, specifically created as a direct response to patent licensing restrictions that affected the original <b>mpg123</b> player. During the era when MP3 decoding patents were actively enforced, <b>mpg123</b> was distributed under a restrictive license. <b>mpg321</b> offered a crucial, fully open-source alternative, ensuring users could play MP3s without legal encumbrances.<br><br>With the expiration of the key MP3 patents, <b>mpg123</b> was subsequently re-licensed under the LGPL, becoming free itself. Consequently, the distinct need for <b>mpg321</b> diminished, and on many contemporary Linux distributions, <b>mpg321</b> is often installed as a symbolic link to <b>mpg123</b> or as a minimal wrapper, reflecting its historical significance and current integration.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-o</b> <i>file</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the output executable or object <i>file</i> name.<br><br><b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Compile source files into object files (<b>.o</b>) without linking.<br><br><b><b>-I</b><i>dir</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Add <i>dir</i> to the list of directories to be searched for include files.<br><br><b><b>-L</b><i>dir</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Add <i>dir</i> to the list of directories to be searched for libraries.<br><br><b><b>-l</b><i>lib</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Link with library <i>lib</i>.<br><br><b><b>-D</b><i>macro</i>[=<i>value</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Define a <i>macro</i> with an optional <i>value</i>.<br><br><b><b>-g</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Produce debugging information for use with debuggers like <b>gdb</b>.<br><br><b><b>-O</b>[<i>level</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Optimize the generated code. <i>level</i> can be <b>0</b>, <b>1</b>, <b>2</b>, <b>3</b>, <b>s</b>, or <b>fast</b>.<br><br><b><b>-Wall</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable all commonly used warning messages.<br><br><b><b>-ansi</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Support only the ANSI C standard.<br><br><b><b>--showme</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>(Specific to some MPI implementations)</i> Display the underlying compiler command, including all <b>MPI</b>-specific flags, without actually compiling.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mpicc</b> is a convenience wrapper script provided by <b>MPI</b> (<i>Message Passing Interface</i>) implementations like <i>Open MPI</i> or <i>MPICH</i>. It is <i>not</i> a compiler itself, but rather a front-end that invokes the underlying C compiler (e.g., <b>gcc</b>, <b>clang</b>) with the necessary compiler flags, include paths, and library linking options required to build <b>MPI</b> applications.<br><br>Its primary purpose is to simplify the compilation process for <b>MPI</b> programs, abstracting away the complex details of locating <b>MPI</b> header files (e.g., <b>mpi.h</b>) and linking against the correct <b>MPI</b> libraries. By using <b>mpicc</b>, developers can compile their parallel C code without manually specifying the often numerous and system-dependent paths and library names. This ensures that the application is correctly linked against the chosen <b>MPI</b> implementation, making the compilation process more portable and less error-prone across different environments.<br><br>In essence, running `<b>mpicc program.c -o program</b>` is equivalent to running `<b>gcc program.c -o program -I/path/to/mpi/include -L/path/to/mpi/lib -lmpi ...</b>`, where <b>mpicc</b> automatically provides the `<b>-I</b>` and `<b>-L</b>` arguments.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li>Requires a functional <b>MPI</b> implementation (e.g., <i>Open MPI</i>, <i>MPICH</i>) to be installed and correctly configured on the system.</li><li>The exact behavior and default compiler invoked by <b>mpicc</b> depend on the specific <b>MPI</b> implementation and its configuration.</li><li>While <b>mpicc</b> simplifies compilation, understanding the underlying compiler and linker options can be crucial for debugging complex issues or optimizing performance.</li></ul>


title: COMPILER CONFIGURATION
content:
The default C compiler used by <b>mpicc</b> can usually be configured during the <b>MPI</b> library's installation or through environment variables (e.g., <b>MPICH_CC</b> for <i>MPICH</i>, or configuration settings for <i>Open MPI</i>).


title: CROSS-COMPILATION
content:
When cross-compiling <b>MPI</b> applications, special care must be taken as <b>mpicc</b> typically uses the system's native compiler. For cross-compilation, one might need to use specific <b>MPI</b> builds configured for the target architecture, or explicitly provide the cross-compiler via environment variables or <b>mpicc</b>'s configuration.


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept of a compiler wrapper like <b>mpicc</b> emerged with the development of the <b>MPI</b> standard itself in the early 1990s. As <b>MPI</b> implementations became available (e.g., <i>MPICH</i> in 1994, <i>Open MPI</i> in 2004), a consistent and user-friendly way to compile <b>MPI</b> applications was needed. These wrappers abstract the complexities of linking against dynamically evolving <b>MPI</b> libraries and ensuring compatibility with various underlying compilers. <b>mpicc</b>, along with its Fortran and C++ counterparts, became a standard tool for parallel programmers, fostering portability and ease of development in the <i>HPC</i> (High-Performance Computing) community.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mpiexec</b> [<i>options</i>] <<i>program</i>> [<i>program_args</i>]<br><br>Common invocation:<br><b>mpiexec</b> <b>-np</b> <i>&lt;num_processes&gt;</i> [<b>-hostfile</b> <i>&lt;filename&gt;</i>] [<i>other_options</i>] <i>&lt;executable&gt;</i> [<i>arguments</i>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-np</b> <i>&lt;num_processes&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the number of processes (MPI ranks) to launch for the parallel application.<br><br><b><b>-hostfile</b> <i>&lt;filename&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides a file listing the hostnames and optionally the number of available slots on each host, used for process distribution.<br><br><b><b>-wdir</b> <i>&lt;directory&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the working directory for all launched processes. If not specified, processes often inherit the working directory of <b>mpiexec</b>.<br><br><b><b>-x</b> <i>&lt;VAR[=VALUE]&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exports an environment variable to the execution environment of the launched processes. Useful for passing configuration or library paths.<br><br><b><b>-pernode</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Launches one process on each node specified in the hostfile or discovered by the resource manager, regardless of available slots per node.<br><br><b><b>-oversubscribe</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allows the MPI runtime to launch more processes than the number of available CPU cores or allocated slots, potentially leading to performance degradation due to resource contention.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mpiexec</b> command is a fundamental utility for launching parallel applications that utilize the Message Passing Interface (MPI) standard. It acts as a wrapper that orchestrates the execution of an MPI program across multiple processes, which can reside on a single machine or be distributed across a cluster of computing nodes. <br><br>When invoked, <b>mpiexec</b> typically interacts with the underlying MPI runtime environment (such as Open MPI, MPICH, or Intel MPI) to:<br><i>1. Allocate resources:</i> Determine which nodes and how many cores/slots are available.<br><i>2. Establish communication:</i> Set up the necessary infrastructure for inter-process communication.<br><i>3. Distribute processes:</i> Launch instances of the specified MPI program on the allocated resources.<br><i>4. Manage execution:</i> Oversee the parallel job, collecting output and handling termination.<br><br>It provides a consistent interface for users to run their parallel codes without needing to manually manage individual processes or network connections, making it an indispensable tool in high-performance computing (HPC) environments.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The exact behavior and available options of <b>mpiexec</b> can vary significantly between different MPI implementations (e.g., Open MPI, MPICH, Intel MPI). Users should consult the specific documentation for their installed MPI library. <br><br>Successful multi-node execution often relies on proper SSH configuration (passwordless login) between nodes or integration with a workload manager like Slurm, PBS/Torque, or LSF. <br><br>Performance can be heavily influenced by network latency, resource allocation, and the efficiency of the underlying MPI library and system configuration.


title: HOSTFILE FORMAT
content:
A hostfile typically lists hostnames, one per line, optionally followed by <i>slots=</i> or <i>max-slots=</i> to indicate the number of available processing units on that host. For example:<br><i>node01 slots=8<br>node02 slots=16</i><br>This allows <b>mpiexec</b> to distribute processes effectively.


title: ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
content:
Many MPI implementations allow fine-tuning behavior through environment variables. For instance, variables prefixed with <i>OMPI_</i> for Open MPI or <i>MPICH_</i> for MPICH can control communication parameters, debugging output, or resource allocation. Using <b>-x</b> with <b>mpiexec</b> is the primary way to pass these to the MPI application.


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept of a unified parallel job launcher emerged with the early development of distributed memory parallel computing. While the MPI Standard itself (first published in 1994) defines the application programming interface, it does not strictly dictate how MPI programs are launched. <br><br>Consequently, various MPI implementations developed their own launchers. <b>mpiexec</b> became a common naming convention and a widely adopted command, often interchangeably used with <b>mpirun</b>. Its widespread use solidified its role as the de facto standard for launching MPI applications, providing a consistent user experience across different MPI libraries and underlying cluster infrastructures. Its evolution has mirrored the advancements in cluster management and high-performance interconnects.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
<b>mpirun</b>(1), <b>ssh</b>(1), <b>srun</b>(1), <b>mpicc</b>(1), <b>mpif90</b>(1), <b>hostfile</b>(5)


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mpirun</b> [<i>options</i>] <i>&lt;program&gt;</i> [<i>&lt;program_args&gt;</i>]<br><br>Or, for more detailed control over host specifications:<br><b>mpirun</b> [<i>options</i>] <b>-np</b> <i>&lt;num_procs&gt;</i> <b>-host</b> <i>&lt;host1,host2,...&gt;</i> <i>&lt;program&gt;</i> [<i>&lt;program_args&gt;</i>]<br><br>Commonly aliased or superseded by <b>mpiexec</b>, which is part of the MPI standard:<br><b>mpiexec</b> [<i>options</i>] <i>&lt;program&gt;</i> [<i>&lt;program_args&gt;</i>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-np</b> <i>&lt;N&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the number of processes to launch for the application.<br><br><b><b>-host</b> <i>&lt;host1,host2,...&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Explicitly lists the hosts (nodes) on which to run the processes, typically in a comma-separated list.<br><br><b><b>-hostfile</b> <i>&lt;filepath&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a file containing a list of hosts and their available slots (cores/processors) for process allocation.<br><br><b><b>--mca</b> <i>&lt;key&gt; &lt;value&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Open MPI specific) Used to set various internal parameters for Open MPI's Modular Component Architecture.<br><br><b><b>-wd</b> <i>&lt;directory&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the working directory for all launched processes on their respective nodes.<br><br><b><b>-x</b> <i>&lt;ENV_VAR&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exports a specified environment variable from the launching shell to the launched MPI processes.<br><br><b><b>-gdb</b> / <b>-tv</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Implementation specific) Launches the MPI application under a debugger (e.g., GDB) or a TotalView debugger wrapper.<br><br><b><b>--oversubscribe</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Open MPI specific) Allows the launching of more processes than available physical cores or slots on a node.<br><br><b><b>--bind-to</b> <i>&lt;type&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Open MPI specific) Specifies how processes should be bound to CPU resources (e.g., <i>core</i>, <i>socket</i>, <i>none</i>).<br><br><b><b>--map-by</b> <i>&lt;type&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Open MPI specific) Specifies how processes should be mapped to computing resources (e.g., <i>node</i>, <i>socket</i>, <i>core</i>).<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i><b>mpirun</b></i> is a crucial command-line utility used to launch parallel applications written using the Message Passing Interface (MPI). It is typically provided as part of an MPI implementation (e.g., Open MPI, MPICH, Intel MPI). Its primary function is to orchestrate the execution of an MPI program across multiple processes, which can be distributed across different nodes in a computing cluster. <i><b>mpirun</b></i> handles the initialization of the MPI environment, process allocation, communication setup, and standard I/O redirection for the parallel application. It allows users to specify the number of processes, their placement on specific hosts or cores, and various runtime options crucial for performance tuning and debugging of distributed applications. While <i><b>mpirun</b></i> is widely used, the MPI standard itself defines <i><b>mpiexec</b></i> as the preferred launcher, which <i><b>mpirun</b></i> often serves as a wrapper or alias for.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The exact behavior and available options of <i><b>mpirun</b></i> can vary significantly between different MPI implementations (e.g., Open MPI, MPICH, Intel MPI). Users must ensure that the <i><b>mpirun</b></i> command being used matches the MPI library against which their application was compiled. Proper environment setup, including <i><b>PATH</b></i> and <i><b>LD_LIBRARY_PATH</b></i>, is crucial for <i><b>mpirun</b></i> to locate the correct executables and libraries.<br><br>When used in a cluster environment, <i><b>mpirun</b></i> often integrates with resource managers like SLURM, PBS/Torque, or LSF, which handle initial resource allocation and job scheduling, passing the allocated resources to <i><b>mpirun</b></i>. Security considerations, such as passwordless SSH access between nodes, are often required for <i><b>mpirun</b></i> to launch processes remotely.


title: MPI STANDARD COMPLIANCE
content:
While <i><b>mpirun</b></i> is widely recognized, the MPI standard specifies <i><b>mpiexec</b></i> as the portable command for launching MPI applications. <i><b>mpirun</b></i> in many MPI implementations (like Open MPI and MPICH) often behaves identically to <i><b>mpiexec</b></i> or is a symbolic link to it, ensuring compliance and portability across different MPI environments. This distinction is important for writing portable scripts.


title: RESOURCE MANAGER INTEGRATION
content:
In large-scale High-Performance Computing (HPC) environments, <i><b>mpirun</b></i> is frequently used within the context of a job scheduler (e.g., SLURM, PBS, LSF). The scheduler first allocates computing resources (nodes, cores). Then, <i><b>mpirun</b></i> leverages this allocation to distribute and launch MPI processes across the assigned resources, often utilizing specific process managers or daemons provided by the MPI implementation (like OpenRTE for Open MPI or Hydra for MPICH).


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept of a unified command for launching parallel MPI applications emerged with the development of the Message Passing Interface standard itself in the early 1990s. While various early parallel computing systems had their own job launchers, <i><b>mpirun</b></i> became a de-facto standard adopted by many MPI implementations to provide a consistent user experience for launching distributed programs.<br><br>The MPI Forum, recognizing the need for a standardized launcher, defined <i><b>mpiexec</b></i> as part of the MPI-2 standard (1997). Many MPI implementations, including Open MPI and MPICH, continue to provide <i><b>mpirun</b></i> as a user-friendly alias or a wrapper around their <i><b>mpiexec</b></i>-compliant launcher, ensuring backward compatibility and familiarity for users. Its development has closely tracked the evolution of MPI, adapting to new network technologies, processor architectures, and resource management systems in high-performance computing.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
<b>mpiexec</b>(1): The standard MPI launcher defined by the MPI Forum, often aliased by <b>mpirun</b>., <b>orterun</b>(1): (Open MPI specific) The actual executable that <b>mpirun</b> often points to in Open MPI., <b>srun</b>(1): SLURM job step launcher, used in conjunction with resource manager environments., <b>qsub</b>(1): PBS/Torque command for submitting jobs to a batch system., <b>ssh</b>(1): Often used by <b>mpirun</b> for remote process spawning.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mplayer</b> [<i>options</i>] [<i>file|URL|device</i>]...<br><br>Examples:<br><b>mplayer</b> <i>video.mp4</i><br><b>mplayer</b> <i>-fs dvd://1</i><br><b>mplayer</b> <i>http://example.com/stream.m3u8</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-fs</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enter full-screen mode immediately.<br><br><b>-zoom</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allow software scaling (zooming) of the video output.<br><br><b>-quiet</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress all non-error output.<br><br><b>-loop <N></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Loop playback N times (0 for infinite loop).<br><br><b>-ss <time></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Seek to a given time position (e.g., 00:01:30 or 90).<br><br><b>-endpos <time></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Stop playback at a given time position.<br><br><b>-framedrop</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Drop frames when CPU is too slow.<br><br><b>-vo <driver></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the video output driver (e.g., <i>xv</i>, <i>gl</i>, <i>x11</i>).<br><br><b>-ao <driver></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the audio output driver (e.g., <i>alsa</i>, <i>pulseaudio</i>).<br><br><b>-playlist <file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Play files from a specified playlist file.<br><br><b>-aspect <ratio></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the display aspect ratio (e.g., 16:9, 4:3).<br><br><b>-channels <N></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Select the number of audio output channels.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mplayer</i> is a powerful and highly versatile command-line media player for Linux and other Unix-like systems. It is renowned for its extensive support for a vast array of audio and video formats, including MPEG/VOB, AVI, Ogg/OGM, VIVO, ASF/ASX, WMV/WMA, QT/MOV/MP4, RealMedia, and many more. Beyond local files, it can play DVDs, VCDs, and various network streams. Its robust backend, leveraging libraries like FFmpeg, allows it to handle nearly any multimedia content. While primarily a command-line tool, it offers an on-screen display (OSD) and supports interactive keyboard controls during playback. <i>mplayer</i> is highly configurable, allowing users to fine-tune video and audio output, apply filters, and customize controls, making it a favorite among power users for its flexibility and performance.


title: CAVEATS
content:
While extremely powerful, <i>mplayer</i>'s development has slowed significantly over time. Its spiritual successor and actively developed fork, <b>mpv</b>, is generally recommended for new installations and modern systems due to its cleaner codebase, improved performance, and more active maintenance. Configuring <i>mplayer</i> for advanced setups can sometimes be complex, requiring familiarity with various video/audio drivers and filter chains.


title: INTERACTIVE CONTROLS
content:
During playback, <i>mplayer</i> supports a wide range of keyboard shortcuts for interactive control. These include pausing/resuming (Space), volume control (9/0), seeking forward/backward (Left/Right arrow keys), changing subtitles (j), and adjusting audio delays (a/A). This allows users to control playback without external graphical interfaces.


title: CODEC SUPPORT
content:
<i>mplayer</i> leverages the libavcodec library from the FFmpeg project, providing it with an unparalleled range of supported audio and video codecs. This includes common formats like H.264, MPEG-4, AAC, MP3, and many more obscure or legacy formats, making it a reliable choice for playing diverse media collections.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mplayer</i> development began around 2000, quickly gaining popularity for its ability to play almost any video or audio format thanks to its integration with FFmpeg's robust codec libraries. It filled a crucial niche for a powerful, cross-platform command-line media player. Its architecture proved influential, leading to forks like <b>mpv</b>, which aimed to refine <i>mplayer</i>'s internal design and user experience while maintaining its core capabilities. Though less actively developed now, <i>mplayer</i> remains a testament to robust multimedia playback.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--device</b> <path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the serial port path to the MicroPython device (e.g., <i>/dev/ttyUSB0</i> on Linux or <i>COM3</i> on Windows).<br><br><b><b>--baud</b> <rate></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the serial communication baud rate (default typically 115200).<br><br><b><b>--wait</b> <timeout></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Waits for the device to connect for a specified timeout in seconds. Useful for devices that take time to boot.<br><br><b><b>--no-wait</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables waiting for the device to connect, proceeding immediately.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, providing more detailed information about operations and connection status.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the <i>mpremote</i> tool version and exits.<br><br><b><b>repl</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enters the MicroPython Read-Eval-Print Loop (REPL), allowing interactive execution of Python commands directly on the device.<br><br><b><b>shell</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides an interactive shell-like interface for navigating and managing the device's filesystem.<br><br><b><b>fs</b> <subcommand></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A group of commands for various filesystem operations on the MicroPython device. Common subcommands include <b>ls</b>, <b>cp</b>, <b>cat</b>, <b>rm</b>, <b>mkdir</b>, <b>rmdir</b>.<br><br><b><b>ls</b> [remote_path]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lists contents of a directory on the MicroPython device. If <i>remote_path</i> is omitted, lists the current directory.<br><br><b><b>cp</b> [local_path] [remote_path]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Copies files or directories between the host computer and the MicroPython device. Supports recursive copy with <b>-r</b>.<br><br><b><b>cat</b> <remote_path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the content of a specified file on the MicroPython device to standard output.<br><br><b><b>rm</b> <remote_path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Removes a specified file on the MicroPython device's filesystem.<br><br><b><b>mkdir</b> <remote_path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates a new directory on the MicroPython device's filesystem.<br><br><b><b>rmdir</b> <remote_path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Removes an empty directory on the MicroPython device's filesystem.<br><br><b><b>run</b> <local_file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes a Python script from the host computer directly on the MicroPython device.<br><br><b><b>exec</b> <python_code></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes a short Python code snippet directly on the MicroPython device without creating a file.<br><br><b><b>mip</b> <subcommand></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Manages MicroPython packages using the MicroPython Package Installer. For example, <b>mip install</b> to install a library.<br><br><b><b>reset</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a soft reset of the MicroPython board, restarting the MicroPython interpreter.<br><br><b><b>boot</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a clean hard reboot of the device, similar to pressing the reset button.<br><br><b><b>df</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the disk usage (free space) on the MicroPython device's filesystem.<br><br><b><b>mount</b> <local_path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mounts a local directory on your host computer as a virtual filesystem on the MicroPython device, allowing direct access to local files.<br><br><b><b>unmount</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Unmounts the previously mounted virtual filesystem from the device.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mpremote</i> is the official command-line tool for interacting with MicroPython-enabled microcontrollers connected via a serial port (typically USB). It provides a versatile set of functionalities, allowing users to execute Python code directly on the device, transfer files to and from the device's filesystem, manage packages using <b>mip</b> (MicroPython Package Installer), and access the MicroPython REPL (Read-Eval-Print Loop). It streamlines the development workflow for MicroPython projects by offering a robust way to manage files, debug code, and administer the device without needing to reflash the firmware repeatedly. <i>mpremote</i> acts as a bridge, enabling seamless communication and control over embedded MicroPython applications from a host computer.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mpremote</i> requires the MicroPython device to be connected via a serial port and powered on. Proper serial port permissions are necessary (e.g., user in <i>dialout</i> group on Linux, or administrator privileges for <i>COM</i> ports on Windows). The device's serial port path can vary significantly and needs to be specified with <b>--device</b>. Occasional disconnections or unresponsive behavior may occur, sometimes requiring a manual device reset or re-plugging.


title: FILE SYSTEM OPERATIONS
content:
<i>mpremote</i> provides robust commands (e.g., <b>ls</b>, <b>cp</b>, <b>cat</b>, <b>rm</b>, <b>mkdir</b>, <b>rmdir</b>) to manage files and directories directly on the MicroPython device's internal flash storage. These commands mirror common Linux file system commands for ease of use in embedded development workflows, allowing seamless interaction with the device's storage.


title: VIRTUAL FILESYSTEM MOUNT
content:
The <b>mount</b> command allows a local directory on your host computer to appear as a virtual filesystem on the connected MicroPython device. This feature is incredibly useful for rapid development and testing, as changes to local files are immediately reflected and accessible on the device without needing to copy them explicitly, streamlining iteration cycles.


title: PACKAGE MANAGEMENT (MIP)
content:
Integration with <b>mip</b> (MicroPython Package Installer) enables easy installation of libraries directly from PyPI, GitHub, or local sources onto the MicroPython device. This significantly simplifies dependency management and software provisioning for embedded projects, allowing developers to extend device functionality with pre-built modules efficiently.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mpremote</i> emerged as the official, unified command-line tool within the MicroPython project to provide a consistent and robust way to interact with MicroPython devices. It aims to supersede various community-contributed tools like <i>ampy</i> or <i>rshell</i> by integrating core functionalities directly into the MicroPython ecosystem. Its development reflects MicroPython's maturation, offering a single, official utility for tasks ranging from file management and script execution to package installation (<b>mip</b>) and direct REPL access, simplifying the developer experience.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>--no-osc</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Disables the on-screen controller.</i><br><br><b><i>--fs</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Starts in fullscreen mode.</i><br><br><b><i>--loop[=N]</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Loops playback indefinitely, or N times if specified.</i><br><br><b><i>--volume=<value></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the initial playback volume (0-100).</i><br><br><b><i>--start=<time></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Starts playback at the specified time (e.g., 'HH:MM:SS', 'SS', 'PP%').</i><br><br><b><i>--alang=<langcodes></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies preferred audio language (e.g., 'en', 'jp').</i><br><br><b><i>--slang=<langcodes></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies preferred subtitle language (e.g., 'en', 'jp').</i><br><br><b><i>--sub-file=<file></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Loads an external subtitle file.</i><br><br><b><i>--hwdec=<api></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Enables hardware decoding using a specified API (e.g., 'auto', 'vaapi', 'vdpau', 'cuda').</i><br><br><b><i>--vo=<driver></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the video output driver (e.g., 'gpu', 'opengl', 'x11').</i><br><br><b><i>--ao=<driver></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the audio output driver (e.g., 'pulse', 'alsa').</i><br><br><b><i>--screenshot</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Takes a screenshot at the current playback position.</i><br><br><b><i>--ytdl</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Enables youtube-dl integration for online media playback.</i><br><br><b><i>--config-dir=<path></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies a custom configuration directory for mpv.</i><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
mpv is a free, open-source, and cross-platform media player that offers high-performance playback of a vast array of media formats. <br><br>Originally forked from MPlayer2 (which was a fork of the classic MPlayer), mpv was designed with an emphasis on modern features, cleaner code, and a more robust design, making it a powerful and flexible choice for media consumption. It supports a wide range of video and audio codecs, leveraging FFmpeg for decoding and various video outputs for rendering.<br><br>While it features a minimalist on-screen controller (OSC) by default, mpv truly shines through its extensive command-line options and powerful Lua scripting capabilities, allowing users to deeply customize its behavior, appearance, and functionality. It excels at handling complex playback scenarios, including high-bitrate video, multi-track audio/subtitles, and sophisticated filtering. Its lightweight nature and efficient hardware decoding support make it suitable for both high-end systems and less powerful machines.


title: CAVEATS
content:
mpv's default minimalist interface might be less intuitive for users accustomed to traditional GUI media players. Its full power is unlocked through command-line options and configuration files, which can present a steep learning curve for newcomers. While highly configurable, complex setups might require delving into its extensive documentation.


title: <B><I>CONFIGURATION FILES</I></B>
content:
mpv's behavior can be extensively customized through configuration files. The main configuration file is typically located at <i>`~/.config/mpv/mpv.conf`</i>. Keyboard shortcuts are defined in <i>`~/.config/mpv/input.conf`</i>. These plain text files allow users to set default options, define custom key bindings, and load scripts.


title: <B><I>ON-SCREEN CONTROLLER (OSC)</I></B>
content:
By default, mpv features a minimalistic on-screen controller (OSC) that appears when the mouse is moved over the video window. This GUI provides basic playback controls like play/pause, seek bar, volume, and fullscreen toggle. It can be disabled with the <i>`--no-osc`</i> option for a completely minimalist experience.


title: HISTORY
content:
mpv began its development around 2012 as a fork of MPlayer2, which itself originated from the MPlayer project. The primary motivation for the fork was to address long-standing design issues in MPlayer, remove deprecated features, and improve the codebase with a focus on modern APIs and maintainability. It quickly gained traction for its efficient performance, extensive customization options, and commitment to a cleaner, more robust architecture, evolving into a widely used media player among power users.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-H, --host</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the MQTT broker hostname or IP address.<br><br><b>-P, --port</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the MQTT broker port (default 1883 for plain, 8883 for SSL).<br><br><b>-t, --topic</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Define the topic to publish and/or subscribe to for test operations.<br><br><b>-u, --username</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide the username for MQTT broker authentication.<br><br><b>-p, --password</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide the password for MQTT broker authentication.<br><br><b>-C, --clientid</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the MQTT client ID to use for the connection.<br><br><b>-q, --qos</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the Quality of Service level for published test messages (0, 1, or 2).<br><br><b>-m, --message</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide a test message string to publish to the specified topic.<br><br><b>-s, --subscribe</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable subscription to the test topic and wait for a response message.<br><br><b>-T, --timeout</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the maximum time in seconds to wait for connection or message response.<br><br><b>-w, --warning</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the warning threshold for response time or latency in seconds.<br><br><b>-c, --critical</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the critical threshold for response time or latency in seconds.<br><br><b>-d, --debug</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable verbose debugging output for troubleshooting.<br><br><b>-v, --verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Increase the verbosity of the script's output.<br><br><b>-V, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display the script's version information and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <i>mqtt_check.py</i> script is a Python-based utility designed to assess the operational status and health of an MQTT broker. It typically functions as a plugin for monitoring systems like Nagios, Zabbix, or Icinga. The script establishes a connection to a specified MQTT broker, optionally publishes a test message to a topic, subscribes to another topic, and verifies the successful receipt of expected messages or the responsiveness of the broker. It provides critical information about connection status, authentication, and message latency, enabling automated alerts for MQTT service disruptions.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Requires the <i>paho-mqtt</i> Python library to be installed.<br>Network connectivity to the MQTT broker is essential.<br>Broker's configuration (e.g., ACLs, topic existence) must allow the test operations.


title: EXIT CODES
content:
Like most monitoring plugins, <i>mqtt_check.py</i> uses specific exit codes to indicate status to monitoring systems:<br><b>0</b> (OK): The MQTT broker is functioning normally.<br><b>1</b> (WARNING): A minor issue or performance degradation was detected.<br><b>2</b> (CRITICAL): A severe problem or service outage was detected.<br><b>3</b> (UNKNOWN): An unexpected error occurred, or the script could not determine the status.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <i>mqtt_check.py</i> script is typically developed as a custom monitoring plugin, often part of a larger collection of monitoring tools for service health checks. Its development is driven by the need for automated, programmatic verification of MQTT broker availability and message processing, especially in IoT and distributed systems where MQTT plays a critical role.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mr</b> [<I>options</I>] [<I>action</I>] [<I>repository or group</I> ...]<br><b>mr</b> [<I>options</I>] <b>-c</b> <I>configfile</I> [<I>action</I>] [<I>repository or group</I> ...]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-a</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Operate on all configured repositories. This is the default behavior if no specific repositories or groups are listed.<br><br><b><b>-c</b> <I>file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify an alternative configuration file to use instead of the default <i>~/.mrconfig</i>.<br><br><b><b>-d</b> <I>dir</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Operate on repositories found within the specified directory, overriding the configured paths if necessary.<br><br><b><b>-f</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force the action, overriding safety checks and potentially interactive prompts.<br><br><b><b>-g</b> <I>group</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Operate only on repositories belonging to the specified group as defined in the configuration file.<br><br><b><b>-i</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Run interactively, prompting for confirmation before performing an action on each repository.<br><br><b><b>-j</b> <I>num</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Execute up to <I>num</I> jobs in parallel. This can significantly speed up operations across many repositories.<br><br><b><b>-m</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Operate only on 'missing' repositories; those that are configured but not yet checked out or present locally.<br><br><b><b>-q</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Operate quietly, suppressing non-essential output.<br><br><b><b>-s</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show a list of repositories that would be acted upon, then exit without performing any action.<br><br><b><b>-S</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show a list of repositories and their full paths that would be acted upon, then exit without performing any action.<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Be verbose, providing more detailed output about the operations being performed.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a help message and exit.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show the version information for <i>mr</i> and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mr</i> is a versatile command-line tool designed to streamline the management of numerous version control repositories from a single interface. It supports a wide array of systems, including Git, Subversion, Mercurial, Bazaar, and Darcs. By reading its configuration from a file (commonly <i>~/.mrconfig</i>), <i>mr</i> allows users to define the location and type of each repository.<br><br>The primary benefit of <i>mr</i> lies in its ability to execute common version control actions—such as <b>update</b>, <b>status</b>, <b>commit</b>, or <b>diff</b>—across all or a specified subset of registered repositories simultaneously. This drastically simplifies workflows for developers working on multiple projects, potentially across different VCS types. It also supports parallel execution of commands, improving efficiency for large collections of repositories. <i>mr</i> acts as a convenient wrapper, translating generic commands into the specific syntax required by each underlying VCS.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mr</i> functions as a wrapper, meaning it requires the underlying version control systems (e.g., Git, SVN) to be installed and correctly configured on your system for its respective repository types to function. Its effectiveness heavily depends on a well-structured and accurate <i>.mrconfig</i> file; errors in this configuration can lead to unexpected behavior or skipped repositories. When using parallel execution (<i>-j</i>), output from different repositories can be interleaved, which might make debugging or monitoring specific operations challenging.


title: CONFIGURATION FILE (<I>.MRCONFIG</I>)
content:
The core of <i>mr</i>'s functionality relies on its configuration file, typically located at <i>~/.mrconfig</i>. This plain-text file defines each repository by specifying its path, type (e.g., <i>git</i>, <i>svn</i>), and optionally, specific commands or hooks to run. It can also define groups of repositories, allowing for operations on logical collections rather than individual ones. The file supports a simple, INI-like syntax, making it easy to define and manage a diverse set of repositories.


title: ACTIONS
content:
While the <b>parameters</b> define <i>how</i> <i>mr</i> operates, <b>actions</b> define <i>what</i> <i>mr</i> does. Common actions include:<br><b>update</b>: Update all repositories.<br><b>status</b>: Show the status of all repositories.<br><b>run</b> <I>command</I>: Execute an arbitrary command within each repository's directory.<br><b>commit</b>: Commit changes in each repository.<br><b>diff</b>: Show differences in each repository.<br><b>list</b>: List configured repositories.<br><b>register</b>: Add the current directory's repository to <i>.mrconfig</i>.<br><b>bootstrap</b>: Check out missing repositories based on a configuration file.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mr</i>, short for 'My Repositories', was developed by Joey Hess, a prominent Debian developer and creator of various robust command-line tools, including <i>git-annex</i>. Its inception around 2007-2008 was driven by Hess's personal need to manage an ever-increasing number of personal and project-related version control repositories, often using different VCS systems. The tool aimed to provide a unified, simple interface to streamline the daily developer workflow, moving beyond the tedium of navigating directories and remembering diverse VCS commands. Since its initial release, <i>mr</i> has been actively maintained and has become a valuable utility for many power users and developers managing diverse and numerous VCS projects.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
As <i>mrd</i> is not a standard Linux command, a universal synopsis cannot be provided. Its syntax, if it exists as a custom definition, would depend entirely on its specific implementation.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>N/A</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Since `mrd` is not a standard Linux command, there are no universally defined parameters or options.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The command <i>mrd</i> is <b>not recognized as a standard utility</b> within common Linux distributions or Unix-like operating systems. Unlike widely available commands such as `ls`, `cd`, or `grep`, there is no readily available manual page (`man mrd`) or consistent definition for `mrd` in official documentation or standard repositories.<br><br>It is highly probable that `mrd` may refer to a:<br><ul><li>a <b>custom script or alias</b> defined by a user or administrator on a specific system.</li><li>a command belonging to a <b>highly specialized or niche software package</b> not commonly installed by default.</li><li>a <b>typographical error</b>, potentially intended to be `mkdir` (make directory), `rmdir` (remove directory), or another similar command.</li></ul><br>Without specific context regarding its origin or purpose, it is impossible to provide definitive information about its functionality, options, or typical usage.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The behavior and existence of `mrd` are entirely dependent on its local definition on a specific system. Users should exercise caution and investigate its purpose if encountered, as its functionality is not predictable from a standard Linux perspective. It could potentially perform arbitrary actions if defined locally.


title: VERIFYING `MRD` ON YOUR SYSTEM
content:
To determine if `mrd` exists and what it does on your specific Linux system, you can attempt to use commands like `type mrd` or `which mrd`. If it's an alias or function, `type mrd` might reveal its definition. If it's an executable script or binary, `which mrd` might show its path, and you could then inspect its contents or permissions.


title: HISTORY
content:
There is no documented history for `mrd` as a standard, universally recognized Linux command. Any 'history' would be limited to specific, local implementations where it might have been defined as a custom utility, alias, or part of a niche software package.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-s</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Silent mode. Suppress some error messages during the rename operation.<br><br><b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Verbose mode. Display more information about the operation being performed.<br><br><b>-V</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show the version number of the <I>mtools</I> package.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
While 'mren' is not a standard Linux command, this analysis assumes it refers to <I>mrename</I> from the <I>mtools</I> package. <br><br> The <I>mrename</I> command is a utility within the <I>mtools</I> suite, designed specifically for renaming files or directories on MS-DOS compatible filesystems (like FAT). It allows Linux users to interact with MS-DOS formatted media, such as floppy disks, USB drives, or disk image files. Unlike the standard <I>mv</I> command, <I>mrename</I> understands and operates within the constraints and conventions of MS-DOS filenames, including the 8.3 filename format. It does not support wildcards for batch renaming and requires the full source and target filenames. Its primary use case is for interoperability with older systems or embedded devices that heavily rely on FAT filesystems, providing a bridge between Linux and MS-DOS file management.


title: CAVEATS
content:
This command operates exclusively on MS-DOS (FAT) filesystems and will not work on standard Linux filesystems (e.g., ext4, XFS). It does not support wildcards for renaming multiple files; each rename operation must specify a single source and target file. Ensure the target filesystem is accessible and properly configured in <I>mtools.conf</I> or via the <I>MTOOLS_FAT_VOLUME</I> environment variable.


title: ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
content:
The <I>MTOOLS_FAT_VOLUME</I> environment variable can be used to specify the path to an MS-DOS disk image file that <I>mrename</I> should operate on, rather than a mounted device.


title: CONFIGURATION
content:
The behavior of <I>mrename</I> and other <I>mtools</I> commands can be configured via the <I>mtools.conf</I> file, typically located in <I>/etc/mtools.conf</I> or <I>~/.mtoolsrc</I>. This file defines drive mappings, default options, and other settings for interacting with MS-DOS filesystems.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <I>mrename</I> command is an integral part of the <I>mtools</I> package, which emerged in the early days of Linux development to provide seamless access to MS-DOS formatted media. Its development has focused on maintaining compatibility with various FAT filesystem versions and ensuring reliable interoperability. While its relevance for everyday Linux file management has diminished with the decline of floppy disks, it remains a stable and valuable tool for specific use cases involving legacy systems or embedded environments.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<B>msbuild</B> [<I>project-or-solution-file</I>] [<I>options</I>]<br><br><B>Examples:</B><br><B>msbuild</B> <I>MyProject.csproj</I><br><B>msbuild</B> <I>MySolution.sln</I> <B>-t:Clean;Build</B><br><B>msbuild</B> <B>-restore</B> <I>./src/App</I><br><B>msbuild</B> <I>MyProject.csproj</I> <B>-p:Configuration=Release -v:minimal</B>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-t, --target</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies one or more build targets to execute, separated by semicolons. Common targets include <B>Build</B>, <B>Clean</B>, <B>Rebuild</B>, and <B>Publish</B>.<br><br><b>-p, --property</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets or overrides project properties. Use the format <B>-p:PropertyName=Value</B>. Can be specified multiple times.<br><br><b>-restore, --restore</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Restores <I>NuGet</I> packages required by the project or solution before building. This is often implicitly handled by <B>dotnet build</B>.<br><br><b>-nologo, --nologo</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses the display of the startup banner and copyright message.<br><br><b>-v, --verbosity</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the verbosity level of the build output. Possible values include <B>q</B> (quiet), <B>m</B> (minimal), <B>n</B> (normal), <B>d</B> (detailed), and <B>diag</B> (diagnostic).<br><br><b>-force, --force</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces a build even if the project is up-to-date, bypassing incremental build checks.<br><br><b>-no-incremental</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables incremental build for all targets.<br><br><b>-m, --maxcpucount</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the maximum number of concurrent processes to use when building. <B>0</B> uses all available CPU cores.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<I>MSBuild</I>, also known as the <I>Microsoft Build Engine</I>, is a free and open-source build platform for .NET applications. It provides an XML-based schema for project files that define how the build process should be handled, including tasks like compiling code, packaging applications, and deploying solutions. On Linux, <I>msbuild</I> is a crucial component of the <I>.NET SDK</I>, enabling developers to build, test, and package their <I>.NET Core</I> and <I>.NET 5+</I> applications directly from the command line. It processes project files (e.g., <B>.csproj</B>, <B>.fsproj</B>) and solution files (<B>.sln</B>), understanding the dependencies and build instructions specified within them. While primarily used for <I>C#</I> and <I>F#</I> projects, its extensibility allows for a wide range of custom build scenarios. Its cross-platform availability ensures that <I>.NET</I> development workflows are consistent across different operating systems.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<I>MSBuild</I> on Linux requires the <I>.NET SDK</I> to be installed and correctly configured. While highly capable, it primarily supports modern <I>.NET Core</I> and <I>.NET 5+</I> projects. Some legacy <I>.NET Framework</I> project types or complex build configurations that heavily rely on Windows-specific features or third-party tools might not fully translate or function as expected in a Linux environment. Developers often use the higher-level <B>dotnet</B> CLI commands (e.g., <B>dotnet build</B>) which internally invoke <I>MSBuild</I>, providing a more streamlined experience.


title: PROJECT FILES AND TARGETS
content:
<I>MSBuild</I> operates by parsing <I>XML-based project files</I> (e.g., <B>.csproj</B>, <B>.vbproj</B>) or <I>solution files</I> (<B>.sln</B>). These files contain properties, items, and most importantly, <I>targets</I> and <I>tasks</I> that define the build steps. A <I>target</I> is a named set of tasks that perform a specific build operation (e.g., <B>Build</B>, <B>Clean</B>, <B>Publish</B>). Developers can define custom targets and extend the build process using standard or custom tasks, providing immense flexibility for complex build scenarios. The project files themselves are typically generated by the <I>.NET SDK</I> or <I>Visual Studio</I> and are human-readable, allowing for direct modification.


title: INTEGRATION WITH .NET CLI
content:
While <B>msbuild</B> can be invoked directly, most <I>.NET</I> developers on Linux interact with it indirectly through the <B>dotnet</B> command-line interface. Commands like <B>dotnet build</B>, <B>dotnet publish</B>, and <B>dotnet restore</B> are high-level wrappers that invoke <I>MSBuild</I> internally with appropriate default arguments and targets. This abstraction simplifies common development workflows, making it easier to manage <I>.NET</I> projects without needing to understand the intricate details of <I>MSBuild</I> syntax for everyday tasks. For advanced or highly customized build scenarios, directly using <B>msbuild</B> provides greater control.


title: HISTORY
content:
<I>MSBuild</I> originated as the Microsoft Build Engine, an integral part of <I>Visual Studio</I> and the <I>.NET Framework</I> on Windows. Its primary purpose was to provide a robust, extensible XML-based platform for building software products. With the advent of <I>.NET Core</I> in 2016, Microsoft began open-sourcing significant portions of the .NET ecosystem, including <I>MSBuild</I> itself. This made it possible for <I>MSBuild</I> to run natively on Linux and macOS, becoming a cornerstone of cross-platform <I>.NET</I> development and enabling consistent build pipelines across different operating systems. Its evolution has focused on aligning with the <I>.NET SDK</I> and supporting modern project formats.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<pre><code>mscompress [<i>options</i>] [<i>infile</i> [<i>outfile</i>]]</code></pre><ul><li><I>infile</I>: The path to the LZX-compressed file to be decompressed. If omitted, <i>mscompress</i> reads from standard input.</li><li><I>outfile</I>: The path where the decompressed data should be written. If omitted, <i>mscompress</i> writes to standard output.</li></ul>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-V</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version information for <i>mscompress</i> and exits.<br><br><b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces output to standard output (<b>stdout</b>), even if an output file could be inferred. This is often the default behavior if no output file is specified.<br><br><b><b>-f</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces overwriting of existing output files without prompting.<br><br><b><b>-o</b> <I>OUTFILE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to the output file where the decompressed data will be written.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
mscompress is a specialized Linux command-line utility designed to decompress files that have been compressed using Microsoft's LZX algorithm. This compression method is predominantly found within Microsoft Cabinet (<b>.cab</b>) files, which were historically used for software distribution, driver packages, and system files in Windows operating systems. <br><br>Unlike general-purpose compression tools like <b>gzip</b> or <b>bzip2</b>, <i>mscompress</i> is not intended for standard Unix file compression. Its specific role is to enable Linux users to extract content from LZX-compressed streams embedded within these proprietary Microsoft archives. It typically reads the LZX-compressed data from an input file (or standard input) and writes the decompressed raw data to standard output or a specified output file. It is often used as a backend component by tools like <b>cabextract</b>, which parse the <b>.cab</b> file structure and then call <i>mscompress</i> to handle the LZX-compressed components.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mscompress</i> is a highly specialized tool exclusively designed for the Microsoft LZX compression algorithm. It cannot decompress files compressed with other algorithms (e.g., MSZIP, ZIP, Deflate, BZIP2, LZMA). Its functionality is often integrated into broader tools like <b>cabextract</b>, which handle the overall structure of Microsoft Cabinet files. Users seeking general-purpose compression/decompression should look to standard Unix utilities. It may not be actively maintained as a standalone utility, and its direct usage is less common now compared to using higher-level archive tools.


title: SPECIFIC PURPOSE
content:
<i>mscompress</i> is not a general-purpose compression or decompression tool. It is singularly focused on the LZX compression algorithm, a proprietary method developed by Microsoft. This distinguishes it significantly from standard Unix compression tools like <b>gzip</b> or <b>bzip2</b>, which use different algorithms (DEFLATE and BZIP2, respectively). Users should understand this specificity; attempting to decompress files compressed with other methods using <i>mscompress</i> will result in errors.


title: INTEGRATION WITH CABEXTRACT
content:
While <i>mscompress</i> can be run directly, its most common and practical application is as an underlying component for more comprehensive archive extraction utilities, particularly <b>cabextract</b>. <b>cabextract</b> handles the parsing of the <b>.cab</b> file format's structure, extracts individual components, and then often calls <i>mscompress</i> (or similar internal routines) to decompress any streams that were specifically compressed with LZX. This makes <i>mscompress</i> an important, albeit often invisible, part of the <b>.cab</b> file extraction ecosystem on Linux.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mscompress</i> emerged as a crucial utility for Linux users needing to interact with Microsoft's proprietary LZX-compressed data streams. Its development was driven by the prevalence of Microsoft Cabinet (<b>.cab</b>) files in the late 1990s and early 2000s, used extensively for distributing Windows system updates, drivers, and application installers. As a standalone tool, or more commonly as a component of projects like <b>cabextract</b>, it allowed non-Windows operating systems to extract and utilize content from these archives. Its primary role was to bridge the gap between Unix-like environments and the specific compression technology employed by Microsoft, enabling interoperability without requiring a Windows environment for decompression. While direct use is less common today, its functionality remains relevant for legacy <b>.cab</b> file handling.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays usage information and exits.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the MuseScore version and exits.<br><br><b>-o &lt;file&gt;, --output &lt;file&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the output file name for export or print operations.<br><br><b>-e &lt;format&gt;, --export-to &lt;format&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exports the given score to the specified format (e.g., pdf, png, midi, flac, mp3).<br><br><b>-p, --print</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the specified score to the default printer or to the file specified by --output.<br><br><b>-r &lt;dpi&gt;, --render-image &lt;dpi&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Renders the score to an image file (PNG by default) at the specified DPI resolution.<br><br><b>-F, --force</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces overwriting of existing output files without prompting.<br><br><b>--no-gui</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Runs MuseScore in headless mode without a graphical user interface, ideal for batch conversions and scripting.<br><br><b>--layout-stretch &lt;factor&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adjusts the layout stretching factor for rendering or export.<br><br><b>--image-width &lt;width&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the image width for rendering or export.<br><br><b>--image-height &lt;height&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the image height for rendering or export.<br><br><b>--pages &lt;range&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a range of pages to export (e.g., "1-3", "2,5").<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i><b>mscore</b></i> is the command-line interface to MuseScore, a popular open-source music notation software. It allows users to compose, arrange, and playback musical scores. Beyond its graphical user interface, the <i><b>mscore</b></i> command facilitates powerful automated tasks such as converting score files between various formats (e.g., .mscz to PDF, MIDI, or image files), printing scores directly, and rendering parts or full scores programmatically. It supports a wide array of musical symbols, instruments, and playback capabilities, making it a versatile tool for musicians, educators, and publishers. The command-line utility is especially useful for batch processing, scripting, and integration into larger workflows, allowing for efficient management of multiple score files without needing to open the full GUI application.


title: CAVEATS
content:
While <i><b>mscore</b></i> offers extensive command-line functionality, it's worth noting:<br>* Many advanced layout and interactive features are exclusively available through the graphical user interface.<br>* When running in GUI mode, an X server or similar display environment is typically required.<br>* The command-line options are numerous and can be highly specific. It's recommended to consult the official MuseScore documentation or experiment with <code>--help</code> for the most up-to-date and complete list of options.


title: BATCH PROCESSING EXAMPLES
content:
<i><b>mscore</b></i> is highly effective for automating tasks like converting entire directories of .mscz files to PDF or MIDI. For instance, to convert all MuseScore files in a directory to PDF:<br><i>for f in *.mscz; do mscore -o "${f%.mscz}.pdf" "$f"; done</i>


title: SUPPORTED FORMATS
content:
MuseScore supports a vast range of import and export formats, including its native .mscz, MusicXML, MIDI, PDF, PNG, SVG, FLAC, MP3, WAV, and more. This makes <i><b>mscore</b></i> a powerful converter for various musical data types.


title: HISTORY
content:
MuseScore, and thus its command-line interface <i><b>mscore</b></i>, was initially created by Werner Schweer in 2002. It was released as open-source software in 2008. Over the years, it has grown significantly in popularity and features, becoming a leading free and open-source music notation program. The command-line capabilities have evolved to support increasingly complex batch operations and scripting needs, reflecting its broad adoption by musicians and developers alike.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>msedge</b> [<i>options</i>] [<i>URL</i>]<br><b>msedge</b> <i>--version</i><br><b>msedge</b> <i>--help</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--incognito</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Launches a new window in Incognito browsing mode, preventing history, cookies, and other site data from being saved.<br><br><b>--new-window</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Opens a new, empty browser window.<br><br><b>--new-tab</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Opens a new tab in the current window or a new window if none exists (often implied if a URL is provided without other window flags).<br><br><b>--profile-directory=<name></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the profile to use. The directory name is usually 'Profile 1', 'Default', etc., located within the user data directory.<br><br><b>--app=<url></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Runs the browser in a minimal application mode, treating the provided URL as a web application without typical browser UI elements like address bar or tabs.<br><br><b>--headless</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Runs the browser in 'headless' mode, without a visible graphical user interface. This is primarily used for automation, testing, or server-side rendering.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the current version of Microsoft Edge and exits.<br><br><b>--disable-gpu</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables GPU hardware acceleration. Useful for troubleshooting rendering issues or in virtualized environments.<br><br><b>--kiosk</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Launches the browser in kiosk mode, full-screen and without any browser controls, typically used for public displays or dedicated terminals.<br><br><b>--start-fullscreen</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts the browser in fullscreen mode upon launch.<br><br><b>--remote-debugging-port=<port></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables remote debugging on the specified port, allowing external developer tools to connect to the browser instance.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>msedge</i> is the command-line executable for Microsoft Edge on Linux, an official web browser developed by Microsoft. Built on the open-source Chromium project, it provides a comprehensive browsing experience comparable to its Windows and macOS counterparts. It offers features such as Collections, vertical tabs, integrated privacy controls, and performance enhancements. Users can install extensions from both the Chrome Web Store and Microsoft Edge Add-ons. The browser integrates seamlessly with Microsoft services and accounts. Its primary purpose is web browsing, but it also supports the creation of Progressive Web Apps (PWAs) and includes a suite of powerful developer tools. It's designed to be fast, secure, and compliant with modern web standards, bringing Microsoft's flagship browser to the Linux desktop environment.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Being a modern browser, <i>msedge</i> can be resource-intensive, particularly with many tabs or extensions open. While built on Chromium, its integration with Microsoft services and telemetry might be a consideration for some Linux users. It relies on the underlying system's graphical environment (X11 or Wayland) for display and may have varying levels of integration with different desktop environments.


title: PROFILE MANAGEMENT
content:
Microsoft Edge supports multiple user profiles, allowing different users or different contexts (e.g., work, personal) to maintain separate browsing data, settings, and extensions. Profiles are typically managed via the browser's UI, but the <code>--profile-directory</code> flag allows launching specific profiles from the command line.


title: WEB APPLICATION MODE
content:
The <code>--app=&lt;url&gt;</code> flag enables launching web pages as isolated applications, appearing like native desktop apps without the full browser interface. This is useful for creating quick access shortcuts to frequently used web services or for dedicated web-based tools.


title: CHROMIUM FLAGS
content:
Like all Chromium-based browsers, <i>msedge</i> supports a vast array of command-line flags for advanced configuration, debugging, and automation. A more comprehensive list of Chromium command-line switches can often be found in online documentation (e.g., on `chromium.org`), though not all may be directly applicable or officially supported for <i>msedge</i> itself.


title: HISTORY
content:
Microsoft Edge's journey to Linux began in 2020 with the release of developer and beta builds. The stable version became generally available in 2021. This marked a significant shift for Microsoft, as the browser, built on the open-source Chromium engine (abandoning its proprietary EdgeHTML), aimed to provide a consistent and cross-platform experience. Its arrival on Linux was part of Microsoft's broader strategy to embrace open-source technologies and expand its software ecosystem beyond Windows.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-d</b> <i>&lt;directory&gt;</i>, <b>--directory</b> <i>&lt;directory&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Extract files into the specified <i>directory</i> instead of the current working directory.<br><br><b><b>-F</b> <i>&lt;pattern&gt;</i>, <b>--filter</b> <i>&lt;pattern&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Extract only files whose names match the given shell-style <i>pattern</i>. Wildcards like '*' and '?' can be used.<br><br><b><b>-L</b>, <b>--lowercase</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Convert all extracted filenames to lowercase. Useful for preventing issues on case-sensitive file systems.<br><br><b><b>-l</b>, <b>--list</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;List the contents of the cabinet file, including file names, sizes, and modification dates, without actually extracting them.<br><br><b><b>-q</b>, <b>--quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress all standard output messages during extraction, showing only error messages.<br><br><b><b>-e</b>, <b>--extract</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Explicitly specifies the extraction action. This is the default behavior if no other action option (like <b>-l</b>) is provided.<br><br><b><b>-s</b>, <b>--split</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable support for extracting files from multi-part (split) cabinet archives, which are archives spread across multiple CAB files.<br><br><b><b>-X</b> <i>&lt;encoding&gt;</i>, <b>--encoding</b> <i>&lt;encoding&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the character <i>encoding</i> used for filenames within the cabinet file, e.g., 'UTF-8' or 'CP1252'.<br><br><b><b>-V</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display the version information of the <b>msexpand</b> utility and exit.<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a brief help message showing common options and usage, then exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>msexpand</b> is a command-line utility used to extract files from Microsoft Cabinet (.CAB) archives. It is often provided as a symbolic link to the <b>cabextract</b> utility, offering a direct way to unpack files contained within these proprietary archive formats. CAB files are commonly used by Microsoft for software distribution, updates, and system recovery. <br><br>By mimicking the functionality of Microsoft's <b>expand.exe</b>, <b>msexpand</b> allows Linux/Unix users to easily access the contents of CAB files without needing Windows-specific tools. Its primary function is to decompress and extract files, making it an essential tool for interacting with Windows-specific archives in a non-Windows environment.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>msexpand</b> is specifically designed for Microsoft Cabinet (.CAB) files and cannot be used to extract other archive types like ZIP, TAR, or GZIP. Users might encounter issues with filenames containing non-ASCII characters if the correct character encoding is not specified using the <b>-X</b> or <b>--encoding</b> option.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>msexpand</b> is typically provided as a symbolic link to the <b>cabextract</b> utility. <b>cabextract</b> was developed as an open-source project to provide Microsoft Cabinet file extraction capabilities on Unix-like operating systems. Its creation aimed to fill a gap by offering a command-line equivalent to Microsoft's <b>expand.exe</b>, allowing users to handle CAB files common in Windows environments without needing proprietary tools or Windows itself.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the help menu and exits.<br><br><b><b>-q</b>, <b>--quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses the Metasploit banner during startup, providing a cleaner console. Useful for scripting.<br><br><b><b>-r</b>, <b>--resource</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes commands from the specified resource (RC) file immediately after the console starts. Ideal for automating common setup or attack sequences.<br><br><b><b>-x</b>, <b>--execute</b> <i>&lt;commands&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes a comma-separated list of Metasploit commands directly upon startup. Similar to <b>-r</b> but for inline commands.<br><br><b><b>-n</b>, <b>--no-database</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts the console without attempting to connect to the Metasploit database. Useful for quick sessions not requiring data storage.<br><br><b><b>-o</b>, <b>--output</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Logs all console output, including command inputs and results, to the specified file.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the Metasploit Framework version information and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>msfconsole</i> is the primary interactive command-line interface for the <I>Metasploit Framework</I>, a powerful open-source platform used by cybersecurity professionals for penetration testing and vulnerability assessment. It provides an environment to load and interact with various modules, including exploits, payloads, encoders, and auxiliary modules, to discover vulnerabilities, develop custom exploits, and simulate real-world attacks. Users can manage sessions, interact with compromised systems, and integrate with a backend database to store scan results, discovered hosts, and captured credentials. <br><br>The console supports scripting for automation and offers a rich set of commands for searching, configuring, and launching modules. Its extensive module library, coupled with its flexibility and extensibility, makes <I>msfconsole</I> an indispensable tool for red team operations, ethical hacking, and security research.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Using <I>msfconsole</I> requires significant system resources, especially RAM, for optimal performance. Misuse of the Metasploit Framework and its capabilities can lead to illegal activities; it should only be used in authorized and controlled environments. Regular updates of the framework are crucial to ensure access to the latest exploits, payloads, and security patches, as well as to maintain compatibility with new vulnerabilities. Issues with database connectivity can limit functionality, such as storing scan results and managing session data.


title: MODULE TYPES
content:
<I>msfconsole</I> organizes its functionalities into various module types:<br><b>Exploits:</b> Code that targets a specific vulnerability on a system to gain unauthorized access.<br><b>Payloads:</b> Small pieces of code executed on a compromised system after an exploit is successful, often used to establish a shell or meterpreter session.<br><b>Auxiliary:</b> Modules that perform various scanning, sniffing, and administrative tasks without exploiting a vulnerability.<br><b>Post:</b> Modules that run on a compromised system (post-exploitation) to gather more information, pivot, or maintain persistence.<br><b>Encoders:</b> Used to obfuscate payloads to evade antivirus detection.<br><b>Nops:</b> No operation sleds used to ensure reliable payload delivery.


title: DATABASE INTEGRATION
content:
<I>msfconsole</I> can integrate with a backend database (e.g., PostgreSQL) to store information gathered during penetration tests. This includes discovered hosts, services, vulnerabilities, captured credentials, and active sessions. Database integration is critical for managing large engagements, tracking progress, and generating reports, allowing for a more organized and efficient workflow.


title: RESOURCE SCRIPTS (RC FILES)
content:
Resource scripts (RC files) are simple text files containing a sequence of <I>msfconsole</I> commands. They are used to automate repetitive tasks, set up environments, or execute predefined attack chains. By running <I>msfconsole -r &lt;file.rc&gt;</I>, users can quickly deploy complex operations without manual command entry, significantly improving efficiency during assessments.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <I>Metasploit Framework</I> was originally created by H.D. Moore in 2003 as a portable network penetration testing tool. It started as a Perl-based framework and later transitioned to Ruby. The core interactive interface, <I>msfconsole</I>, has been a consistent and central component throughout its evolution, providing a robust environment for exploit development and execution. In 2009, Rapid7 acquired the Metasploit project, significantly accelerating its development and professionalizing its support while maintaining its open-source core. This history underscores its growth from a niche tool to a widely recognized and indispensable platform in the cybersecurity community.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>msfpc</b> [<i><platform>/<arch></i>] [<i><payload_type></i>] [<i><options></i>]<br>or<br><b>msfpc</b> [<i><payload_name></i>] [<i><options></i>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i><platform>/<arch></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the target platform and architecture, e.g., <b>windows/x64</b>, <b>linux/x86</b>, <b>android/armle</b>. This determines the base payload type.<br><br><b><i><payload_type></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the shell or meterpreter type, and whether it's staged or stageless. Examples: <b>reverse_tcp</b>, <b>bind_tcp</b>, <b>meterpreter_reverse_tcp</b>, <b>meterpreter_bind_tcp</b>. Can be suffixed with <b>_stageless</b> for a single-stage payload.<br><br><b>LHOST=<IP></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Local host IP address for the listener (required for reverse shells).<br><br><b>LPORT=<PORT></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Local port for the listener (required for reverse shells).<br><br><b>RHOST=<IP></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Remote host IP address (required for bind shells).<br><br><b>RPORT=<PORT></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Remote port (required for bind shells).<br><br><b>ITERATIONS=<number></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Number of times to encode the payload (for some encoders).<br><br><b>FILENAME=<name></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the output filename for the payload.<br><br><b>RAW</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Output the raw shellcode (not an executable).<br><br><b>INTERACTIVE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Run <b>msfpc</b> in interactive mode, prompting for options.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>msfpc</b> command, short for <i>Metasploit Payload Creator</i>, is a utility script often found in penetration testing distributions like Kali Linux. It acts as a wrapper around the more complex <b>msfvenom</b> tool, streamlining the process of generating malicious payloads.<br><br>While <b>msfvenom</b> offers extensive customization, <b>msfpc</b> simplifies common use cases by providing an interactive interface or a more intuitive command-line syntax for generating various types of payloads (e.g., reverse shells, bind shells) for different operating systems and architectures. It abstracts away many of <b>msfvenom</b>'s intricate options, allowing users to quickly create payloads by specifying basic parameters like target OS, architecture, payload type (staged/stageless), and connection details (LHOST, LPORT).<br><br>Beyond just generating the payload executable, <b>msfpc</b> can also automatically create a corresponding <i>Metasploit resource script (.rc)</i>, which can be loaded into <b>msfconsole</b> to set up a listener for the generated payload. This integrated approach significantly accelerates the initial stages of a penetration test, making it easier for users to generate and deploy payloads without deep knowledge of <b>msfvenom</b>'s syntax.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>msfpc</b> simplifies payload generation but does not inherently make payloads undetectable by antivirus software. The generated payloads are still based on <b>msfvenom</b>'s output, and may require further obfuscation or evasion techniques for real-world scenarios. Always use such tools responsibly and only on systems you have explicit permission to test.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>msfpc</b> script emerged as a community-contributed or distribution-specific wrapper around <b>msfvenom</b>. While <b>msfvenom</b> itself is a core component of the Metasploit Framework, developed by Rapid7, <b>msfpc</b>'s exact origin is less formally documented, often appearing as a utility script included in penetration testing Linux distributions like Kali Linux to enhance user experience. It addresses the common need to quickly generate standard payloads without memorizing the verbose syntax of <b>msfvenom</b>, reflecting a trend towards making powerful security tools more accessible to a wider range of users, from beginners to experienced pentesters.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>msfvenom</b> -p <i>&lt;payload&gt;</i> [options] -f <i>&lt;format&gt;</i> -o <i>&lt;output_file&gt;</i><br><b>msfvenom</b> [options]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-p</b>, <b>--payload</b> <i>&lt;payload&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the payload to use. This is often the first and most critical option to define the malicious behavior.<br><br><b><b>-l</b>, <b>--list</b> <i>&lt;type&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;List available modules of a specific type. Common types include <i>payloads</i>, <i>encoders</i>, <i>nops</i>, or <i>all</i> to list everything.<br><br><b><b>-f</b>, <b>--format</b> <i>&lt;format&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the output format for the generated payload. Examples include <i>exe</i> (Windows executable), <i>elf</i> (Linux executable), <i>raw</i> (raw shellcode), <i>sh</i> (shell script), <i>asp</i>, <i>war</i>, <i>apk</i>, etc.<br><br><b><b>-e</b>, <b>--encoder</b> <i>&lt;encoder&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the encoder to use to obfuscate the payload. Encoders help in evading basic antivirus detection. Examples include <i>x86/shikata_ga_nai</i>.<br><br><b><b>-a</b>, <b>--arch</b> <i>&lt;architecture&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the target architecture for the payload (e.g., <i>x86</i>, <i>x64</i>, <i>armle</i>, <i>mips</i>). This must match the target system's architecture.<br><br><b><b>-o</b>, <b>--output</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Save the generated payload to the specified output file.<br><br><b><b>-b</b>, <b>--bad-chars</b> <i>&lt;chars&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify characters to avoid in the generated payload, often used to prevent breaking exploit stability due to specific character limitations (e.g., <i>'\x00\x0a\x0d'</i> for null, newline, carriage return).<br><br><b><b>-i</b>, <b>--iterations</b> <i>&lt;count&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The number of times to encode the payload. Multiple iterations can further obfuscate the payload, but also increase its size and potentially reduce stability.<br><br><b><b>-x</b>, <b>--template</b> <i>&lt;path&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify a custom executable template to embed the payload into. This allows embedding the malicious payload within a legitimate-looking application.<br><br><b><b>-k</b>, <b>--keep</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When used with <b>--template</b>, this option preserves the template's original functionality, making the resulting executable appear normal while secretly executing the payload.<br><br><b><b>-s</b>, <b>--space</b> <i>&lt;size&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The maximum size of the generated payload in bytes. Useful for fitting payloads into limited buffer spaces during exploitation.<br><br><b><b>-n</b>, <b>--nopsled</b> <i>&lt;count&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prepend a NOP sled of <i>count</i> size to the payload. NOP sleds increase the chances of hitting the payload during exploitation by providing a buffer of 'no operation' instructions.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--var-name</b> <i>&lt;name&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify a custom variable name for certain output formats (e.g., C, Perl, Ruby shellcode arrays) where the payload is stored as a variable.<br><br><b><b>--platform</b> <i>&lt;platform&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the target platform for the payload (e.g., <i>windows</i>, <i>linux</i>, <i>osx</i>, <i>android</i>). This helps in filtering relevant payloads and encoders.<br><br><b><b>--smallest</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Generate the smallest possible payload. This often implies using a non-staged payload and minimal encoding to reduce byte count.<br><br><b><b>--raw</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Output raw payload bytes, useful when the payload needs to be integrated into custom exploit code or buffer overflows.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display the help message and exit.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show the <i>msfvenom</i> version information and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>msfvenom</i> is a powerful command-line utility that is an integral part of the Metasploit Framework, widely used by penetration testers and security researchers. It serves as a standalone payload generator and encoder, consolidating the functionalities of <i>msfpayload</i> and <i>msfencode</i> into a single, more efficient tool.<br><br>Its primary purpose is to create various types of malicious payloads, ranging from simple shellcode to complex executables, web scripts, and mobile application payloads, targeting a multitude of operating systems and architectures (e.g., Windows, Linux, macOS, Android, iOS, x86, x64, ARM). <i>msfvenom</i> allows users to specify the payload, encoder, number of iterations, and output format. The encoding capabilities are crucial for evading signature-based antivirus detection, though advanced AV/EDR solutions can often detect <i>msfvenom</i>-generated payloads. It's an essential tool for crafting custom implants during red team operations and vulnerability exploitation.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Generated payloads from <i>msfvenom</i>, especially with common encoders, are frequently detected by modern antivirus (AV) and Endpoint Detection and Response (EDR) solutions. Advanced obfuscation techniques or custom shellcode may be required for evasion.<br><br>Usage of <i>msfvenom</i> requires a deep understanding of security principles and should only be performed with explicit legal authorization and ethical considerations. Misuse can lead to severe legal consequences.


title: PAYLOAD OPTIONS (LHOST, LPORT, ETC.)
content:
Many payloads generated by <i>msfvenom</i> require specific configuration options to function correctly. These options are typically appended directly after the payload name using the <b>KEY=VALUE</b> format.<br><br>Common options include:<br><b>LHOST</b>: The local host or attacker's IP address where the listener will be set up.<br><b>LPORT</b>: The local port on which the listener will operate.<br><b>RHOST</b>: The remote host or target's IP address (for bind payloads or exploits).<br><b>RPORT</b>: The remote port on the target (for bind payloads or specific exploits).<br><br>For example: <b>msfvenom -p windows/meterpreter/reverse_tcp LHOST=192.168.1.100 LPORT=4444 -f exe -o payload.exe</b><br><br>These options are crucial for defining the payload's behavior, especially for reverse shell connections or stage configurations.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>msfvenom</i> was introduced as a significant improvement within the Metasploit Framework, debuting around 2015 with Metasploit Framework version 4.10. Its creation was driven by the need to consolidate and streamline the payload generation process. Prior to <i>msfvenom</i>, users had to employ two separate command-line tools: <i>msfpayload</i> to generate the raw payload and then <i>msfencode</i> to obfuscate and format it. This often involved piping the output of one command to the input of another, which could be cumbersome and prone to errors.<br><br><i>msfvenom</i> effectively merged the functionalities of both <i>msfpayload</i> and <i>msfencode</i> into a single, more efficient, and user-friendly command. This integration simplified the workflow for penetration testers, reduced overhead, and provided a more robust and unified interface for crafting custom payloads, quickly making it an indispensable tool in the security community.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-a, --set-attribute=ATTRIBUTE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Set a specified attribute</i> (e.g., "fuzzy", "obsolete", "c-format") <i>on matching entries.</i><br><br><b>-D, --drop-attribute=ATTRIBUTE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Remove a specified attribute</i> (e.g., "fuzzy", "obsolete") <i>from matching entries.</i><br><br><b>-F, --only-fuzzy</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only entries marked as fuzzy.</i><br><br><b>-f, --only-nonfuzzy</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only entries not marked as fuzzy.</i><br><br><b>-O, --only-obsolete</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only obsolete entries.</i><br><br><b>-o, --only-nonobsolete</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only non-obsolete entries.</i><br><br><b>-u, --untranslated</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only entries that are untranslated.</i><br><br><b>-t, --translated</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only entries that are translated.</i><br><br><b>-E, --only-empty-output</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only entries with an empty translation string.</i><br><br><b>-e, --only-nonempty-output</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only entries with a non-empty translation string.</i><br><br><b>-A, --only-assigned</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only entries with an assigned translator comment.</i><br><br><b>-d, --only-deassigned</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Keep only entries without an assigned translator comment.</i><br><br><b>--statistics</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Print statistics about the PO file content instead of the modified entries.</i><br><br><b>-o, --output-file=FILE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Write output to the specified file instead of standard output.</i><br><br><b>-i, --input-file=FILE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Read input from the specified file instead of standard input.</i><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>msgattrib</i> is a utility from the GNU gettext toolset, designed to manipulate and filter entries within a PO (Portable Object) file. PO files are standard formats for storing translatable strings and their translations in internationalization (i18n) workflows.<br><br>This command allows users to perform operations such as setting or dropping specific attributes (like <i>fuzzy</i>, <i>obsolete</i>, or <i>comment</i> flags) on message entries. Beyond modification, <i>msgattrib</i> can also filter entries, enabling users to extract only those that match certain criteria, for example, only <i>fuzzy</i> entries, only translated ones, or only those without a translation.<br><br>This makes it an invaluable tool for translators and localization engineers to manage the state of their translation files, perform quality checks, or prepare files for specific stages of the translation process. It typically takes a PO file as input and writes the modified or filtered content to standard output or a specified output file.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>msgattrib</i> primarily operates on <i>PO</i> files; it does not directly handle <i>MO</i> (Machine Object) files. Filtering options within the same category (e.g., <i>--only-fuzzy</i> and <i>--only-nonfuzzy</i>) are mutually exclusive and using them together may yield unexpected results or an empty output. Care must be taken when modifying critical attributes like <i>fuzzy</i>, as it directly impacts the readiness and quality status of translations in a workflow.


title: COMMON USE CASES
content:
<i><b>Marking entries as fuzzy</b></i>: After a source string change, <i>msgmerge</i> often marks affected translations as fuzzy. <i>msgattrib</i> can be used to manually set or unset this flag for specific entries.<br><i><b>Filtering for review</b></i>: Translators or reviewers can use <i>--only-fuzzy</i> or <i>--untranslated</i> to create a subset of the <i>PO</i> file that requires immediate attention.<br><i><b>Cleaning up obsolete entries</b></i>: Obsolete entries are not used but kept for reference. <i>--only-obsolete</i> can filter them out, or <i>-D obsolete</i> could remove the flag if they are no longer needed for history.<br><i><b>Automated workflows</b></i>: Integrating <i>msgattrib</i> into scripts allows for automated checks and modifications of <i>PO</i> files based on project-specific rules or build processes.


title: ATTRIBUTE TYPES
content:
The <i>ATTRIBUTE</i> argument for <i>--set-attribute</i> and <i>--drop-attribute</i> typically refers to flags like "fuzzy" or "obsolete", but can also include format flags (e.g., "c-format", "php-format", "java-format") that indicate the type of format string used in the message. These format flags are usually detected by <i>xgettext</i> but can be manually manipulated if needed.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <i>msgattrib</i> command is an integral part of the GNU gettext localization framework. Gettext itself was initiated by Sun Microsystems in the early 1990s and later adopted and extended by the GNU project. It became a de facto standard for internationalization in Unix-like operating systems and many open-source projects. <i>msgattrib</i> emerged as part of the <i>gettext-tools</i> suite, providing a granular way to manage the state and properties of individual translation entries within <i>PO</i> files. Its development has closely tracked the evolution of the gettext system, aiming to offer robust and flexible command-line tools for translators and developers to automate and streamline localization workflows, particularly concerning quality control and workflow management of translation memory.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-o</b> <i>FILE</i>, <b>--output-file</b>=<i>FILE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Write output to specified <i>FILE</i> instead of standard output.<br><br><b><b>--sort-output</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sort entries in the output PO file alphabetically by message ID.<br><br><b><b>--use-first</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When duplicate message IDs are found, use the translation from the first encountered file.<br><br><b><b>--use-last</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When duplicate message IDs are found, use the translation from the last encountered file.<br><br><b><b>--force-po</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force writing output in PO file syntax, even if some translations are missing or malformed.<br><br><b><b>--width</b>=<i>COLUMNS</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the output page width to <i>COLUMNS</i> for formatting.<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a help message and exit.<br><br><b><b>-V</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display version information and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>msgcat</i> is a utility from the GNU gettext toolset, designed to concatenate and merge multiple Portable Object (PO) files into a single consolidated PO file. PO files are plaintext files used for internationalization and localization, containing original strings and their corresponding translations. <br><br><i>msgcat</i> is particularly useful when translations for a project are split across several files or when multiple contributors provide separate translation fragments. It intelligently handles duplicate message IDs, typically preserving the first encountered translation or the most complete one if variations exist. This command simplifies the process of creating a unified translation file, which can then be compiled into a machine-readable MO (Machine Object) file using <i>msgfmt</i> for use by applications. It's an essential tool for maintaining large or distributed translation projects.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>msgcat</i> is primarily for concatenation and simple merging. For more advanced merging operations, such as updating translations against a new template, <i>msgmerge</i> is the more appropriate tool. Handling of conflicting translations for the <b>same</b> message ID (e.g., different translations for the same source string) is controlled by options like <b>--use-first</b> or <b>--use-last</b>; without them, behavior might depend on internal heuristics or the gettext version.


title: USE CASES
content:
A common use case for <i>msgcat</i> is combining translation fragments from various modules of a large application into a single, cohesive translation file. It can also be used to merge translations from multiple contributors who might have worked on separate parts of the localization effort. The output can then be compiled into a binary <i>.mo</i> file for runtime use by applications.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>msgcat</i> is an integral part of the GNU gettext internationalization and localization (i18n/L10n) framework. The gettext project was initiated in the early 1990s to provide a standardized way for programs to support multiple human languages. <i>msgcat</i>, along with other tools like <i>xgettext</i>, <i>msgmerge</i>, and <i>msgfmt</i>, evolved as essential components of this robust system for managing software translations. Its core purpose remains consistent: to help aggregate and manage translation units in <i>.po</i> files.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-s, --silent</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress output of differences; only set exit status based on comparison.<br><br><b>-v, --verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print differences. This is the default behavior.<br><br><b>--textdomain=TEXTDOMAIN</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the textdomain for MO files, overriding the default.<br><br><b>--directory=DIR</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Add DIR to the list of directories to search for MO files.<br><br><b>--output-po-file=FILE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Write a PO file containing the identified differences to FILE.<br><br><b>--output-mo-file=FILE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Write an MO file containing the identified differences to FILE.<br><br><b>--output-file=FILE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;An alias for --output-po-file=FILE.<br><br><b>--color[=WHEN]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Control colored output. WHEN can be 'always', 'never', or 'auto'.<br><br><b>--debug</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show debug information, useful for troubleshooting.<br><br><b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a help message and exit.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Output version information and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <B>msgcmp</B> command is a utility from the GNU gettext toolset, designed to compare two message catalog files. It can compare two <I>.po</I> (Portable Object) files, or one <I>.po</I> file and one <I>.mo</I> (Machine Object) file. Its primary function is to identify differences in message IDs, their corresponding translations, or plural forms between the specified files. This is invaluable for developers and localizers to ensure the consistency and accuracy of translated content, especially when verifying if a <I>.po</I> file correctly reflects the strings within a compiled <I>.mo</I> file, or to track divergences between different versions of translation files. <B>msgcmp</B> aids in maintaining the integrity of internationalized applications.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Operates exclusively with GNU gettext <I>.po</I> and <I>.mo</I> file formats. It is a comparison tool, not a merging utility; for merging, use <B>msgmerge(1)</B>. The exit status is crucial for scripting purposes to determine comparison results.


title: EXIT STATUS SIGNIFICANCE
content:
<B>msgcmp</B> is often used in scripts due to its meaningful exit status:<BR>• <B>0</B> if the files are identical.<BR>• <B>1</B> if differences are found.<BR>• <B>greater than 1</B> if an error occurred during processing.


title: FILE FORMAT SPECIFICITY
content:
This command is designed for use with GNU gettext's specific <I>.po</I> (Portable Object) and <I>.mo</I> (Machine Object) file formats, which are standard for internationalizing software using the gettext framework.


title: HISTORY
content:
As a core component of the GNU gettext project, <B>msgcmp</B> has been integral to the internationalization and localization workflow since the early stages of gettext's development. It provides a standardized way to verify the consistency of translation files, evolving alongside the gettext standard itself to support various features and best practices.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>source_qid</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The numeric identifier of the source message queue from which messages will be copied.<br><br><b>dest_qid</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The numeric identifier of the destination message queue to which messages will be copied.<br><br><b>-t type</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Copies only messages of the specified <i>type</i>. If this option is omitted, all messages are copied, regardless of their type.<br><br><b>-n</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies that messages should <b>not</b> be removed from the <i>source_qid</i> after being copied. By default, messages are removed from the source queue.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>msgcomm</b> command is a utility for interprocess communication (IPC) in Linux, specifically designed for System V message queues. It facilitates the copying of messages from a specified source message queue to a destination message queue. This can be useful for various scenarios such as migrating messages between applications, creating backups of queue contents, or staging messages for further processing.<br>By default, messages are removed from the source queue after being copied, effectively moving them. However, an option is available to only copy the messages, leaving the originals intact in the source queue. It also allows filtering messages by type, enabling selective message transfer.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>msgcomm</b> requires appropriate read permissions on the source queue and write permissions on the destination queue.<br>Message queue identifiers (QIDs) are ephemeral and unique only while the queue exists within the kernel.<br>Copying a large number of messages can temporarily consume significant system resources.<br>The destination queue must already exist for the operation to succeed; <b>msgcomm</b> does not create new queues.


title: RETURN VALUE
content:
<b>msgcomm</b> exits with a status of 0 on success. On failure, it exits with -1 and prints an informative error message to standard error, indicating the reason for the failure (e.g., invalid queue IDs, permission denied, or resource limitations).


title: USAGE CONTEXT
content:
This command is typically used by system administrators or developers for debugging, managing, or migrating IPC message queue contents. It's a low-level utility and not commonly part of application-level logic directly.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>msgcomm</b> is part of the System V IPC utilities, a set of features dating back to AT&T System V Unix, providing fundamental mechanisms for interprocess communication including message queues, semaphores, and shared memory. These utilities have been a standard component of Unix-like operating systems, including Linux, for decades, ensuring compatibility and robust IPC capabilities.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>msgconv</b> [<B>OPTION</B>]... [<B>INPUTFILE</B>]<br><b>msgconv</b> [<B>OPTION</B>]... <B>--output-file</B>=<I>FILE</I> [<B>INPUTFILE</B>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--output-file=<I>FILE</I>, -o <I>FILE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Write converted output to <I>FILE</I> instead of standard output.<br><br><b>--input-file=<I>FILE</I>, -i <I>FILE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Read input from <I>FILE</I> instead of standard input.<br><br><b>--to-code=<I>ENCODING</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Convert messages to the specified <I>ENCODING</I> (e.g., UTF-8, ISO-8859-1).<br><br><b>--from-code=<I>ENCODING</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the original <I>ENCODING</I> of messages if it cannot be detected from the input file's header.<br><br><b>--no-fallback</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not try to use the original string if conversion fails, resulting in empty translated strings for untranslatable messages.<br><br><b>--strict</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Abort conversion if a character cannot be represented in the target encoding, instead of using substitute characters.<br><br><b>--force-po</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Always output a PO file, even if the input was a MO file (useful for reverse conversion from compiled MO files).<br><br><b>--verbose, -v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display detailed progress messages during conversion.<br><br><b>--color</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Colorize warning and error messages for better readability.<br><br><b>--indent</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Indent the output PO file for improved human readability.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display version information and exit.<br><br><b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a help message and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>msgconv</b> is a utility from the <b>GNU gettext</b> suite, designed to convert <i>message catalogs</i> (typically <b>.po</b> files) from one character encoding to another. This is essential for internationalization projects that handle text in various languages using different encodings, ensuring compatibility and proper display.<br><br>It reads message catalogs from an input file or standard input, performs the character set conversion using the <i>iconv</i> library, and writes the converted output to a specified file or standard output. It's particularly useful when consolidating or deploying translations where target systems or workflows require specific encodings, such as transforming an <b>ISO-8859-1</b> PO file to <b>UTF-8</b>.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Character encoding conversion performed by <b>msgconv</b> relies heavily on the underlying <b>iconv</b> library. If <b>iconv</b> does not support a particular source or target encoding, or if a character cannot be mapped between them, <b>msgconv</b> might fail or produce substitute characters depending on the <i>--strict</i> and <i>--no-fallback</i> options. Ensure your system's <b>iconv</b> library is robust and supports the necessary character sets for your localization needs.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>msgconv</b> is an integral part of the <b>GNU gettext</b> localization framework, which originated in the early 1990s as a Free Software Foundation project. Its development has paralleled the evolution of internationalization best practices in Unix-like systems, enabling developers to easily adapt software for various languages and cultural conventions by handling string externalization and character set conversions.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display help information and exit.<br><br><b>-v, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display version information and exit.<br><br><b>-d, --date=<I>date</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the <b>Date:</b> header field. If not specified, a current date will be used.<br><br><b>-m, --message-id=<I>id</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the <b>Message-ID:</b> header field. If not specified, a unique ID will be generated.<br><br><b>-r, --from=<I>address</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the <b>From:</b> header field. If not specified, it defaults to the current user's email address.<br><br><b>-t, --to=<I>address</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the <b>To:</b> header field.<br><br><b>-c, --cc=<I>address</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the <b>Cc:</b> header field.<br><br><b>-b, --bcc=<I>address</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the <b>Bcc:</b> header field.<br><br><b>-s, --subject=<I>subject</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the <b>Subject:</b> header field.<br><br><b>-a, --add-header=<I>NAME: VALUE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Add an arbitrary header field. This option can be used multiple times.<br><br><b>-i, --ignore-input</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not read message body from standard input.<br><br><b>-e, --add-newline</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Ensure the message body ends with a newline character.<br><br><b>--auto-decode</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Attempt to decode RFC 2047 encoded header fields (default behavior).<br><br><b>--no-auto-decode</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disable RFC 2047 header decoding.<br><br><b>--charset=<I>charset</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the default character set for the <b>Content-Type</b> header (e.g., <i>utf-8</i>).<br><br><b>--output-charset=<I>charset</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Convert the message body to the specified character set before output.<br><br><b>--encode</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Add a <b>Content-Transfer-Encoding</b> header if missing and encode the body (e.g., Base64 or Quoted-Printable).<br><br><b>--rfc2047-encode</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force RFC 2047 encoding for specified header fields if non-ASCII characters are present.<br><br><b>--input-file=<I>file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Read message body from the specified file instead of standard input.<br><br><b><I>header value</I> ...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Any remaining arguments are interpreted as header <b>NAME: VALUE</b> pairs, which are added to the message. These have the highest precedence.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>msgen</i> is a utility from the GNU Mailutils package designed to create email messages conforming to RFC 822 and RFC 2822 standards.<br>It is particularly useful for scripting mail operations or when you need to construct a message with specific headers that might otherwise be automatically generated or omitted by standard <i>mail</i> commands. <i>msgen</i> can populate missing essential headers such as <b>Date</b>, <b>Message-ID</b>, <b>From</b>, and <b>To</b>, ensuring the generated output is a complete and valid mail message.<br>Users can provide initial header fields as command-line arguments, or <i>msgen</i> can read the message body from standard input. It ensures the message includes a <b>Content-Type</b> header, typically <i>text/plain; charset=us-ascii</i> by default, but this can be overridden. <i>msgen</i> is often used as a backend for other mail utilities or in shell scripts requiring precise control over mail message structure.


