# CommandSection

title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>--help</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits. Can be used as <I><b>meson --help</b></I> for global options or <I><b>meson <command> --help</b></I> for subcommand-specific help.<br><br><b><i>--version</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the Meson version number and exits.<br><br><b><i>--builddir <path></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to the build directory. If not provided for commands like <I>compile</I> or <I>test</I>, Meson looks for a <I>build.ninja</I> file in the current directory or a standard sub-directory like <I>build/</I>.<br><br><b><i>--backend <backend></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Selects the build backend to use for generating build files (e.g., <I>ninja</I>, <I>vs</I> for Visual Studio). Ninja is the default and recommended backend.<br><br><b><i>--cross-file <file></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Path to a file describing the cross-compilation environment and settings.<br><br><b><i>--native-file <file></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Path to a file describing the native build environment and settings (useful for specifying dependencies or toolchains).<br><br><b><i>--fatal-meson-warnings</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Treats any warnings emitted by Meson itself as fatal errors, causing the build configuration to fail.<br><br><b><i>--warn-error</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instructs the compiler/linker to treat warnings as errors, causing compilation to fail on warnings (applies to supported backends).<br><br><b><i>-D<option>=<value></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets a project option for the build. This is typically used during the <I>setup</I> phase (e.g., <I><b>-Ddebug=true</b></I> or <I><b>-Dprefix=/usr</b></I>).<br><br><b><i>--wipe</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Used with the <I>setup</I> command. Wipes the existing build directory entirely before reconfiguring the project from scratch.<br><br><b><i>--reconfigure</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Used with the <I>setup</I> command. Reconfigures an existing build directory without wiping it, applying any new options or changes.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
Meson is an open-source build system designed for high performance and ease of use. It aims to make building software projects straightforward and enjoyable, supporting a wide range of programming languages and platforms including C, C++, Rust, Python, and Java. Meson works by generating build files for various backends, with <I>Ninja</I> being its primary and recommended choice due to its exceptional speed. It focuses on expressiveness, safety, and correctness, using a simple, declarative build definition language. Key features include automatic dependency detection, robust cross-compilation support, automatic dependency fetching (subprojects), and built-in testing capabilities. Meson is widely adopted in modern open-source projects for its efficiency, maintainability, and ability to streamline the development workflow from configuration to installation.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Meson requires a separate build backend like <I>Ninja</I> to perform actual compilation; Meson itself is primarily a build system generator. While its build definition language is designed for simplicity, new users might find the transition from imperative build systems challenging. Effective cross-compilation requires well-defined cross-files that accurately describe the target environment and toolchain, which can be complex to set up initially.


title: SUBCOMMANDS
content:
Meson operates through a system of subcommands, each performing a specific task. For example, <I><b>meson setup</b></I> configures the build directory, <I><b>meson compile</b></I> builds the project, <I><b>meson test</b></I> runs tests, and <I><b>meson install</b></I> installs the built project. Each subcommand has its own set of specific options, which can be viewed using <I><b>meson <command> --help</b></I>.


title: BUILD DIRECTORY SEPARATION
content:
A core design principle of Meson is the strict separation of source and build directories. All generated files, object files, and compiled executables are placed in a dedicated build directory, leaving the source tree pristine. This approach facilitates managing multiple build configurations (e.g., debug, release, or different targets) from the same source codebase without interference.


title: HISTORY
content:
Meson was initially created by Jussi Pakkanen and first released in 2013. It emerged as a modern alternative to traditional build systems like <I>Autotools</I> and <I>CMake</I>, aiming to address their perceived complexity, slowness, and difficulty in cross-platform development. Its design philosophy emphasizes speed, ease of use, and strong support for modern development practices. Meson quickly gained traction, particularly within the GNOME project and other open-source communities, due to its efficient incremental builds (leveraging <I>Ninja</I>), declarative syntax, and robust cross-compilation capabilities. Its development is active, continuously improving its features and expanding language and platform support.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--replace</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Replaces a currently running window manager with a new <I>Metacity</I> instance. Useful for switching window managers on the fly.<br><br><b><b>--display=<I>DISPLAY</I></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the <I>X display</I> to connect to. Typically used in multi-display or remote scenarios.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the <I>Metacity</I> version information and exits.<br><br><b><b>--sm-disable</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables session management, preventing <I>Metacity</I> from interacting with the session manager.<br><br><b><b>--sync</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Makes <I>X</I> requests synchronous, primarily for debugging purposes. This can significantly slow down performance.<br><br><b><b>--no-force-window-manager</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents <I>Metacity</I> from attempting to become the window manager if one is already running. Useful for testing or specific setups.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<I>Metacity</I> is a lightweight window manager for the <I>X Window System</I>, primarily known as the default window manager for <I>GNOME 2</I>. Its design philosophy prioritizes simplicity and adherence to standard specifications like <I>ICCCM</I> and <I>EWMH</I>, focusing on core window management functionality rather than elaborate visual effects or extensive configurability.<br><br>It is responsible for essential tasks such as drawing window frames (borders and title bars), handling window placement, managing input focus, and controlling window states (minimization, maximization, closing). Unlike modern compositing window managers, <I>Metacity</I> does not provide desktop effects or integrated compositing; it offloads these responsibilities to other components or relies on a separate compositing manager.<br><br>While superseded by <I>Mutter</I> in <I>GNOME 3</I>, <I>Metacity</I> remains a viable option for users seeking a stable, efficient, and low-resource window manager, particularly in older <I>GNOME</I> environments or custom lightweight desktop setups.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<I>Metacity</I> has been largely superseded by <I>Mutter</I> as the default window manager in <I>GNOME 3</I> and later versions, which integrates compositing. <I>Metacity</I> itself does not provide compositing effects. While still available, its development is less active, primarily focusing on maintenance rather than new features. It is best suited for older <I>GNOME 2</I> environments or as a lightweight alternative for basic window management.


title: COMPLIANCE AND PHILOSOPHY
content:
<I>Metacity</I> strictly adheres to the <I>Inter-Client Communication Conventions Manual (ICCCM)</I> and the <I>Extended Window Manager Hints (EWMH)</I> specifications. Its philosophy prioritizes stability, responsiveness, and adherence to <I>GNOME's Human Interface Guidelines</I> over extensive user customization or flashy visual effects.


title: COMPOSITING
content:
Unlike modern window managers like <I>Mutter</I> or <I>KWin</I>, <I>Metacity</I> does not natively provide compositing functionality. If desktop effects or transparency are desired, a separate compositing manager (e.g., <I>Compton</I> or <I>Picom</I>) must be used in conjunction with <I>Metacity</I>.


title: HISTORY
content:
<I>Metacity</I> was developed to replace <I>Sawfish</I> as the default window manager for <I>GNOME 2</I>, aiming for a simpler, more user-friendly experience compliant with <I>GNOME's Human Interface Guidelines</I>. It was designed to provide a stable and efficient environment without focusing on extensive configurability or visual effects, which were often seen as distracting.<br><br>With the advent of <I>GNOME 3</I>, <I>Metacity</I> was replaced by <I>Mutter</I>, a new window manager that integrates <I>Clutter</I> for advanced graphical effects and compositing. Despite this, <I>Metacity</I> continues to be maintained for use in <I>GNOME Flashback</I> sessions and other environments where a lightweight, non-compositing window manager is preferred.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--show-about</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the Metacity "About" dialog box.<br><br><b><b>--set-workspace-name</b> <i>&lt;workspace_num&gt; &lt;name&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the name for the specified workspace number. The <i>&lt;workspace_num&gt;</i> is 0-indexed.<br><br><b><b>--set-active-workspace</b> <i>&lt;workspace_num&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Switches the active workspace to the specified <i>&lt;workspace_num&gt;</i> (0-indexed).<br><br><b><b>--set-max-workspaces</b> <i>&lt;number&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the total number of virtual workspaces available.<br><br><b><b>--sync</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Synchronizes with the Metacity window manager after sending the command.<br><br><b><b>--display=</b><i>DISPLAY</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the X server to connect to. This overrides the <b>DISPLAY</b> environment variable.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <i>metacity-message</i> command is a deprecated utility designed to send specific commands to the Metacity window manager. Primarily used in the GNOME 2 desktop environment era, it allowed users or scripts to interact with Metacity for tasks such as displaying its "About" dialog, changing workspace names, or switching active workspaces. Its functionality is highly coupled with the Metacity window manager itself, which has largely been replaced by Mutter in modern GNOME versions. Therefore, this command is generally not found or functional on contemporary Linux distributions running standard GNOME. Its purpose was to provide a simple command-line interface for common window manager actions that could be integrated into scripts.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The <i>metacity-message</i> command is largely obsolete. It requires the Metacity window manager to be running, which is no longer the default in modern GNOME (replaced by Mutter). This command is unlikely to be found or work on contemporary Linux systems unless a desktop environment specifically using Metacity (or a derivative like MATE's Marco) is installed. Users seeking similar window management control on modern systems should explore utilities like <i>wmctrl</i> or <i>xdotool</i>.


title: USAGE CONTEXT
content:
This command was primarily useful for shell scripting to automate desktop tasks, such as switching between workspaces based on specific triggers or naming workspaces dynamically. It was a low-level interface to Metacity's internal messaging system.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>metacity-message</i> was an integral part of the GNOME 2 desktop environment's window management capabilities. It was developed to provide a programmatic interface to Metacity, allowing scripts and other applications to control window manager behavior. With the transition to GNOME 3, Metacity was largely superseded by Mutter (a composite window manager and display server), leading to the deprecation and eventual removal of <i>metacity-message</i> from common distributions. Its functionality has been absorbed or replaced by other mechanisms in newer desktop environments.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the help message, listing available options and general usage information for the command.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs the version information for the <b>metacity-theme-viewer</b> utility.<br><br><b><b>--display=</b><i>DISPLAY</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the X display to connect to. This is useful when running the command on a different X server than the current one.<br><br><b><i>THEME_FILE_OR_DIRECTORY</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The path to the Metacity theme file (typically <b>metacity-theme-1.xml</b>) or the directory containing the theme assets. If a directory is provided, the viewer will attempt to find the theme definition file within it.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>metacity-theme-viewer</b> is a dedicated utility for visually previewing themes designed for the <i>Metacity</i> window manager.<br><br>This tool allows users and, more particularly, theme developers to inspect how a specific Metacity theme renders various window decorations, such as title bars, window buttons (close, minimize, maximize), and resizing handles, without needing to apply the theme system-wide. It provides a convenient sandbox for evaluating theme aesthetics and and functionality, making it invaluable for debugging visual inconsistencies or comparing different design iterations efficiently.<br><br><i>Metacity</i> served as the default window manager for the <i>GNOME 2</i> desktop environment. Consequently, <b>metacity-theme-viewer</b> remains relevant primarily in legacy <i>GNOME 2</i> installations or environments that explicitly utilize or support Metacity themes, offering a snapshot of window appearance.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>metacity-theme-viewer</b> is largely considered a legacy tool. Its primary utility is within environments still utilizing the <i>Metacity</i> window manager, which has been superseded by <i>Mutter</i> in modern <i>GNOME</i> (<i>GNOME 3</i> and newer). Users on contemporary Linux distributions with default <i>GNOME</i> installations may find this command unavailable or irrelevant, as their window decorations are managed by <i>Mutter</i> themes or other compositors.


title: PURPOSE FOR THEME DEVELOPERS
content:
This tool is particularly valuable for <i>Metacity</i> theme developers. It allows them to quickly iterate on design changes to window decorations without the overhead of applying the theme globally, logging out, or restarting the desktop environment, significantly streamlining the theme creation and debugging workflow.


title: THEME STRUCTURE
content:
<i>Metacity</i> themes typically consist of an XML definition file (commonly named <b>metacity-theme-1.xml</b>) located within a subdirectory like <b>metacity-1/</b>, alongside various image assets (e.g., PNG files) that define buttons, borders, and other graphical elements of the window frames.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>metacity-theme-viewer</b> utility was developed as an integral part of the <i>Metacity</i> project, serving as the default window manager for the <i>GNOME 2.x</i> series. Its creation was aimed at simplifying theme development and previewing during a period when <i>Metacity</i> themes were prevalent. With the transition of <i>GNOME</i> to version <i>3</i> and the adoption of <i>Mutter</i> as its default window manager and compositor, the relevance and active development of <b>metacity-theme-viewer</b> significantly declined, positioning it as a tool primarily for historical or niche <i>Metacity</i>-based environments.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<i>metacity-window-demo</i> [<b>--display</b>=DISPLAY] [<b>--screen</b>=SCREEN] [<b>--type</b>=TYPE] [<b>OPTIONS</b>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--display</b>=<i>DISPLAY</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Connects to the specified X server display. Useful for running the demo on a remote or specific display.<br><br><b><b>--screen</b>=<i>SCREEN</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies which screen to use on a multi-screen display setup, if applicable.<br><br><b><b>--type</b>=<i>TYPE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the window type hint for the created window, such as <i>normal</i>, <i>dialog</i>, <i>utility</i>, <i>splash</i>, or various menu and toolbar types. This tests how Metacity handles different window roles.<br><br><b><b>--sticky</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates a sticky window, meaning it will appear on all workspaces or virtual desktops.<br><br><b><b>--maximized</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts the demo window in a maximized state.<br><br><b><b>--fullscreen</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts the demo window in fullscreen mode, without any window decorations or desktop elements.<br><br><b><b>--no-decorations</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates a window without any client-side decorations (title bar, borders), relying on the window manager to provide them or making it borderless.<br><br><b><b>--always-on-top</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the window's 'always on top' hint, making it appear above other windows.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message with available options and exits.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the version information of the <i>metacity-window-demo</i> utility and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <i>metacity-window-demo</i> command is a specialized utility primarily used by developers and testers of the Metacity window manager, or the GNOME desktop environment itself. Its main purpose is to demonstrate various window manager features and behaviors by opening one or more example windows. These windows can be configured to display different window decorations (title bars, borders), unique window states (e.g., maximized, minimized, sticky, fullscreen), and specific window properties that test how Metacity handles them.<br><br>This tool is invaluable for debugging window manager issues, testing new Metacity themes, or understanding the nuances of window handling within the GNOME environment. While Metacity has largely been superseded by Mutter in modern GNOME versions, <i>metacity-window-demo</i> remains a relevant diagnostic tool for legacy systems or for those studying window manager mechanics.


title: CAVEATS
content:
This command is highly specialized and primarily relevant for environments using the Metacity window manager, such as older GNOME 2.x setups. It may not function as expected or be relevant on modern Linux distributions running GNOME 3.x with Mutter, or other desktop environments like KDE Plasma, XFCE, or LXQt. Its purpose is solely for demonstration and testing of window manager behaviors, not for general user productivity. The output is visual, requiring a running X server.<br><br>As Metacity is largely deprecated, this tool is mostly for historical study or maintenance of legacy systems.


title: USAGE CONTEXT
content:
This command is not intended for typical end-user interaction or daily productivity. Instead, it serves as a crucial diagnostic and demonstration tool for developers, theme designers, and testers involved with the Metacity window manager or the GNOME 2.x desktop environment. It helps in visualizing how Metacity handles various window attributes and states, aiding in debugging and ensuring proper rendering of applications.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>Metacity</i> was the default window manager for the GNOME 2 desktop environment, designed to be simple and robust compared to its highly configurable predecessor, Sawfish. The <i>metacity-window-demo</i> utility was developed as an internal tool during Metacity's active development phase to thoroughly test various window manager capabilities, window types, and decorations. It allowed developers to quickly verify how Metacity would render and manage different window properties.<br><br>With the transition to GNOME 3, Metacity was largely superseded by <i>Mutter</i>, which combines a window manager with a Wayland compositor and X.Org display server. Consequently, while <i>metacity-window-demo</i> might still exist in some distributions for historical compatibility or specific diagnostic needs, its primary relevance is within the context of Metacity-based GNOME 2.x environments.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>meteor run</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><i>Description:</i> Starts the Meteor development server, compiling and running the application. It automatically reloads on code changes.<br><br><b>meteor create &lt;project-name&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><i>Description:</i> Generates a new Meteor application project with a default structure.<br><br><b>meteor add &lt;package-name&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><i>Description:</i> Adds a specified Meteor package or npm package to the current project.<br><br><b>meteor remove &lt;package-name&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><i>Description:</i> Removes a specified Meteor package or npm package from the current project.<br><br><b>meteor build &lt;output-path&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><i>Description:</i> Compiles the application and bundles it into a deployable tarball for production.<br><br><b>meteor update</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><i>Description:</i> Updates the Meteor release of the current project and its dependencies to the latest compatible versions.<br><br><b>meteor deploy &lt;hostname&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><i>Description:</i> (Legacy/Specific) Historically, this deployed the application to a specified host, often Meteor Galaxy. Modern deployment typically involves <b>meteor build</b> and external hosting.<br><br><b>meteor npm &lt;command&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><i>Description:</i> Executes npm commands (<b>install</b>, <b>update</b>, <b>test</b>, etc.) within the Meteor project's specific Node.js environment.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i><b>Meteor</b></i> is an open-source, full-stack JavaScript platform for building web and mobile applications. It provides a highly productive environment for creating real-time applications from scratch. Meteor bundles a reactive front-end (often integrated with frameworks like React, Angular, or Vue), a Node.js server, and a database (MongoDB by default), all communicating seamlessly. Its core principles include "Don't write what the database can do," promoting reactive data flows, and "isomorphic JavaScript," allowing the same code to run on both client and server. It simplifies development by integrating various technologies and handles data synchronization, client-side updates, and build processes efficiently. Meteor's command-line interface allows developers to create, run, build, and deploy applications with ease, significantly reducing setup time and fostering rapid prototyping and deployment. It supports cross-platform development for web, iOS, and Android from a single codebase.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<br><b>Important Considerations:</b><br><br><i><b>Meteor</b></i> requires Node.js and npm for installation and often for managing project dependencies.<br>It is primarily a web/mobile application development framework, not a general-purpose Linux system utility.<br>While it simplifies many aspects, a foundational understanding of JavaScript, Node.js, and web development concepts is beneficial.<br>The <b>meteor deploy</b> command's direct cloud integration functionality has evolved; modern deployments often leverage <b>meteor build</b> for external hosting solutions.


title: INSTALLATION
content:
<i><b>Meteor</b></i> is typically installed using npm or a dedicated install script:<br><code>curl https://install.meteor.com/ | sh</code><br>Alternatively, after installing Node.js and npm globally:<br><code>npm install -g meteor</code>


title: PROJECT STRUCTURE
content:
A typical <i><b>Meteor</b></i> project generally follows a convention-over-configuration approach. Key directories include:<br><br><b>client/</b>: For client-side code (browser).<br><b>server/</b>: For server-side code (Node.js).<br><b>public/</b>: For static assets (images, fonts, etc.) that are served directly.<br><b>imports/</b>: For modular code that needs to be explicitly imported, preventing eager loading.<br><b>lib/</b>: For shared code that runs on both client and server.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i><b>Meteor</b></i> was first released in December 2011 by Meteor Development Group (MDG). Its initial goal was to simplify the development of real-time web applications by providing a full-stack, opinionated framework built on JavaScript. It quickly gained popularity for its reactive data updates, "data on the wire" approach, and rapid prototyping capabilities. Over the years, Meteor has evolved, integrating more modern frontend libraries (like React, Angular, Vue), improving its build system, and adapting to changes in the JavaScript ecosystem. While its initial direct cloud hosting (<b>meteor deploy</b>) has shifted more towards flexible <b>meteor build</b> output for various cloud platforms (like Galaxy, Heroku, AWS, DigitalOcean), it remains a robust choice for building full-stack JavaScript applications.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-h</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display help information and exit.<br><br><b>-P <num_probing_bytes></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the number of blocks to probe in the nested attack (default 500). Higher values may increase success rate but take longer.<br><br><b>-t <key_type></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Define the type of key to crack. Use 'A' for Key A or 'B' for Key B.<br><br><b>-O <output_file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;After successful cracking, dump the entire card's data to the specified output file in mifare classic dump format.<br><br><b>-f <input_file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Use an existing dump file as input for offline cracking. Useful for re-cracking or validating.<br><br><b>-k <key_file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide a file containing known keys to speed up the cracking process. Keys should be in hexadecimal format.<br><br><b>-r <reader_id></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the exact NFC reader device to use if multiple are connected. Use 'nfc-list' to find reader IDs.<br><br><b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable verbose output, showing more details about the cracking process.<br><br><b>-D</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable debug output, providing even more detailed information, useful for development or troubleshooting.<br><br><b>-S <sector_num></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Start cracking from a specific sector number. Useful when only parts of the card need cracking or to resume an interrupted process.<br><br><b>-C <num_consecutive_bytes></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the number of consecutive bytes in the known plaintext for the attack (default 16).<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mfoc</b> (Mifare Classic Offline Cracker) is a command-line utility designed to recover cryptographic keys used on Mifare Classic RFID cards. It exploits known vulnerabilities, such as the <i>"nested attack"</i> or <i>"darkside attack"</i>, to deduce unknown keys for sectors on a Mifare Classic card. This process typically involves reading some known data from the card (e.g., from sectors with default or known keys) and then using computational methods to progressively discover the remaining unknown keys.<br><br><b>mfoc</b> is commonly used in security research, penetration testing, and for recovering keys for legitimate purposes when access to them has been lost. It requires a compatible NFC reader, such as the ACR122U.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Using <b>mfoc</b> typically requires specific hardware, most commonly an <i>ACR122U</i> or compatible NFC reader. The legality and ethical implications of using this tool to access or modify RFID cards not explicitly owned or authorized for testing should be carefully considered, as it may be illegal in many jurisdictions.<br><br>Success is not guaranteed for all cards, as some newer implementations or configurations might be more resilient to these attacks. The cracking process can also be time-consuming, depending on the card and the chosen parameters.


title: HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
content:
<b>mfoc</b> typically requires an NFC Forum-compliant reader capable of raw Mifare commands. The <i>ACR122U</i> is a widely supported and popular choice due to its direct support for the necessary low-level interactions with Mifare Classic cards.


title: ETHICAL USE
content:
Users are strongly advised to use <b>mfoc</b> only on cards they own or for which they have explicit authorization to test. Adherence to local laws and ethical guidelines regarding cybersecurity research and penetration testing is paramount to prevent misuse.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mfoc</b> emerged from significant security research into the cryptographic weaknesses of Mifare Classic cards. It implements the <i>"nested attack"</i>, published by researchers like Karsten Nohl and Henryk Plötz, and the <i>"darkside attack"</i>, published by Gerhard de Koning Gans in 2009. These vulnerabilities revealed flaws in the Mifare Classic's encryption scheme, enabling key recovery under certain conditions. <b>mfoc</b> provides an open-source implementation of these techniques, making them accessible to the security community for assessment, educational purposes, and legitimate key recovery efforts.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-a</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Automatically selects output format based on device characteristics.</i><br><br><b><b>-A <i>val</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Passes an option to the <i>mdir</i> command for specific behavior.</i><br><br><b><b>-c <i>val</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Passes an option to the <i>mdir</i> command for specific behavior.</i><br><br><b><b>-C</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Creates the disk image file if it does not already exist.</i><br><br><b><b>-f <i>size</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies the size of the disk in kilobytes (e.g., 720, 1440, 2880).</i><br><br><b><b>-F <i>type</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the FAT type to 12, 16, or 32.</i><br><br><b><b>-h <i>heads</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the number of heads for the disk geometry.</i><br><br><b><b>-H <i>sectors</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the number of hidden sectors before the partition.</i><br><br><b><b>-i <i>file</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specifies a different device or image file to format instead of the default.</i><br><br><b><b>-I <i>id</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the volume ID (serial number) of the formatted disk.</i><br><br><b><b>-L <i>label</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the volume label for the formatted disk.</i><br><br><b><b>-M <i>byte</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the media descriptor byte in the boot sector.</i><br><br><b><b>-n</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Do not assign a volume label to the formatted disk.</i><br><br><b><b>-N <i>serial</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets a custom serial number for the disk.</i><br><br><b><b>-P</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Formats a partition, using <i>mformat</i>'s internal partition table processing.</i><br><br><b><b>-Q</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Quiet mode; suppresses warnings and most informational messages.</i><br><br><b><b>-r <i>entries</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the maximum number of root directory entries.</i><br><br><b><b>-R <i>sectors</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the number of reserved sectors in the boot record.</i><br><br><b><b>-s <i>sectors</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the number of sectors per track.</i><br><br><b><b>-S <i>sectors</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the total number of sectors on the disk.</i><br><br><b><b>-t <i>tracks</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Sets the number of tracks.</i><br><br><b><b>-T</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Test mode; performs all steps except actually writing to the device.</i><br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Verbose mode; displays detailed information during formatting.</i><br><br><b><b>-V</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Verifies written sectors after formatting.</i><br><br><b><b>-X</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Uses extended BIOS parameter block for FAT32 filesystems.</i><br><br><b><b>-Z</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Zero-fills the data area of the disk during formatting.</i><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mformat</i> is a utility from the <b>mtools</b> package designed to create an MS-DOS (FAT) filesystem on a floppy disk, hard disk partition, or disk image. It's analogous to the <i>FORMAT</i> command found in MS-DOS or Windows. This command is crucial for users needing to exchange data with systems running DOS or Windows, especially in environments where direct access to such systems is limited.<br><br><i>mformat</i> handles the low-level formatting and filesystem creation, allowing the device to be recognized and used by DOS/Windows systems. It supports various FAT filesystem types (FAT12, FAT16, FAT32) and can configure parameters like cluster size and volume label. While its original purpose was heavily tied to floppy disks, it can also format partitions on hard drives or USB drives, effectively preparing them for use with FAT-compatible operating systems. It integrates seamlessly with other <b>mtools</b> utilities like <i>mcopy</i>, <i>mdir</i>, and <i>mmd</i>, providing a complete suite for MS-DOS filesystem manipulation.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mformat</i> operates directly on device files, often requiring root privileges or proper user permissions to function correctly. Incorrect usage or specifying the wrong device can lead to irreversible data loss. While powerful for FAT filesystems, it is not suitable for formatting other filesystem types (e.g., ext4, NTFS), for which dedicated tools like <i>mkfs.ext4</i> or <i>mkfs.ntfs</i> should be used. For general FAT filesystem creation in modern Linux, <i>mkfs.vfat</i> (from <b>dosfstools</b>) is often preferred as it's typically more actively maintained.


title: DEFAULT DEVICE
content:
If no <i>device</i> argument is specified, <i>mformat</i> attempts to format the first floppy drive (typically <i>/dev/fd0</i>). This default behavior can be overridden or configured via the <b>mtools</b> configuration files.


title: MTOOLS CONFIGURATION
content:
<i>mformat</i>'s behavior, including default drive mappings, geometry settings, and other options, can be extensively customized through the <i>~/.mtoolsrc</i> user configuration file or the system-wide <i>/etc/mtools/mtools.conf</i> file. This allows users to define custom settings for various disk types or devices.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mformat</i> is a core component of the <b>mtools</b> suite, which emerged in the early 1990s. Its development was driven by the need for seamless floppy disk exchange between Unix-like systems and MS-DOS/Windows environments, a common necessity during that era. The <b>mtools</b> project aimed to provide a robust set of utilities for direct manipulation of DOS filesystems from Unix, bypassing the need to boot into DOS. As floppy disks declined in prominence, <i>mformat</i>'s utility adapted to formatting USB drives and disk images with FAT filesystems, maintaining its relevance for cross-platform data exchange, especially for embedded systems, virtual machines, or legacy hardware requirements.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>file...</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;One or more files to open upon launching the editor. If no files are specified, <b>mg</b> starts with an empty buffer.<br><br><b><b>-f</b> <i>function</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Execute the specified <i>function</i> immediately after startup. This is useful for running custom Emacs Lisp commands.<br><br><b><b>-l</b> <i>file</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Load the specified <i>file</i> after <b>mg</b>'s initialization file (<i>~/.mg</i> or <i>~/.emacs</i>) has been loaded. This allows for additional configuration or script execution.<br><br><b><b>-u</b> <i>user</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Use <i>~/.mg</i> as the initialization file, rather than attempting to auto-detect <i>~/.emacs</i>. This ensures a consistent startup behavior for <b>mg</b>-specific configurations.<br><br><b><b>-q</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not load the initialization file (<i>~/.mg</i> or <i>~/.emacs</i>). This is useful for troubleshooting or for starting <b>mg</b> with a clean slate.<br><br><b><b>+</b><i>N</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Start the editor with the cursor positioned at line <i>N</i> of the first specified file. For example, <b>mg</b> <i>+10 filename</i> will open <i>filename</i> at line 10.<br><br><b><b>-V</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print the version information of <b>mg</b> and then exit.<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a brief help message summarizing command-line options and then exit.<br><br><b><b>-nw</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force <b>mg</b> to run in a non-windowed (terminal) mode, even if an X11 display is available. This ensures text-based interaction.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mg</b> command is a lightweight, portable, and fast text editor designed to mimic the core functionality and keybindings of GNU Emacs. It aims to provide a comfortable Emacs-like editing experience without the overhead of a full Emacs installation. <b>mg</b> is particularly suitable for systems where resources are limited or where users prefer a more minimalist editor with familiar Emacs keyboard shortcuts.<br><br>It offers essential features such as buffer management, file operations, search and replace, and basic customization through an Emacs Lisp-like configuration file, typically <i>.mg</i> or <i>.emacs</i>, in the user's home directory. While not a full Emacs replacement, <b>mg</b> serves as an excellent alternative for developers and users who primarily need efficient text editing capabilities.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mg</b> is designed to be lightweight and therefore does not implement the full range of features found in GNU Emacs. It lacks support for many advanced Emacs Lisp packages, complex modes, and integrated tools like Dired or Org-mode. Users expecting a complete Emacs environment may find <b>mg</b>'s capabilities limited. Its Emacs Lisp interpreter supports only a subset of functions, primarily for basic configuration and simple extensions.


title: CUSTOMIZATION
content:
<b>mg</b> can be customized by placing a configuration file named <i>.mg</i> or <i>.emacs</i> in your home directory. This file uses a subset of Emacs Lisp syntax to define keybindings, load functions, and set variables, allowing users to tailor the editor to their preferences. Changes made in this file are applied upon <b>mg</b>'s startup.


title: KEYBINDINGS
content:
One of <b>mg</b>'s primary strengths is its adherence to traditional Emacs keybindings. Users familiar with GNU Emacs will find most common commands, such as <b>C-x C-s</b> (save), <b>C-x C-c</b> (exit), <b>C-s</b> (search), and <b>C-k</b> (kill line), to be identical. This consistency provides a seamless transition for Emacs users seeking a lighter editor.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mg</b>, short for <i>MicroGnuEmacs</i>, originated as a fork of MicroEmacs by Dave Conroy, aiming to create a tiny, fast, and portable editor with Emacs-like keybindings. It was later adopted and further developed, notably by the NetBSD <i>pkgsrc</i> project. Its primary goal has always been to provide a minimal, yet functional, Emacs-compatible editing experience for environments where a full Emacs installation might be impractical due to size or resource constraints. This focus on efficiency and portability has maintained its relevance over the years.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>(No specific options)</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The <b>mgrtopbm</b> command does not have any command-line options specific to its function. It processes input directly and writes to standard output. It adheres to the general Netpbm conventions for input and output.<br><br><b><i>mgrfile</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the input MGR bitmap file to be converted. If this argument is omitted, <b>mgrtopbm</b> reads the MGR bitmap data from standard input (stdin).<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mgrtopbm</b> command is a specialized utility within the extensive Netpbm image manipulation toolkit. Its primary function is to convert image files from the proprietary <I>MGR (Mike's Graphics Routines)</I> bitmap format into the standard Netpbm <I>Portable BitMap (PBM)</I> format. <br><br>The MGR format, associated with the MGR window system popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s, was designed for monochrome graphical displays. <b>mgrtopbm</b> specifically handles these monochrome MGR bitmaps. <br><br>The PBM format, on the other hand, is a simple, plain-text or raw binary format representing a monochrome (black and white) image, where each pixel is either black or white. By converting MGR files to PBM, <b>mgrtopbm</b> enables users to integrate older MGR graphics into modern workflows, allowing further manipulation with other Netpbm tools or conversion to widely supported image formats.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The MGR format is largely obsolete, making <b>mgrtopbm</b> a niche tool primarily for dealing with legacy graphics. <br><br><b>mgrtopbm</b> specifically handles monochrome MGR bitmaps. It does not support color MGR graphics, if such variations existed, as its output is always the monochrome PBM format. <br><br>As with many command-line tools, malformed or corrupted MGR input files may lead to unexpected behavior or errors.


title: STANDARD INPUT/OUTPUT
content:
By default, <b>mgrtopbm</b> reads the MGR bitmap data from standard input (stdin) and writes the resulting PBM image data to standard output (stdout). This allows for easy piping of data with other commands in a Unix-like environment, making it a flexible component in shell scripts.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>mgrtopbm</b> command is a remnant of the <I>MGR (Mike's Graphics Routines)</I> window system era, which was developed in the late 1980s and was notable for its tiling window manager. As part of the Netpbm project, <b>mgrtopbm</b> facilitates interoperability between this older, proprietary graphics format and the highly portable and versatile Netpbm suite of image formats and tools. Its existence reflects Netpbm's long-standing commitment to universal image format conversion and compatibility, preserving access to historical graphics data.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-file</b> <i>file</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the pathname to the file containing the copyright or disclaimer text to be inserted into the message.<br><br><b><b>-version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version number of the <code>mh_copyright</code> utility and exits.<br><br><b><b>-help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints a brief usage message detailing the command's syntax and options, then exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<code>mh_copyright</code> is a specialized utility within the <i>MH (Message Handling)</i> email system. Its primary function is to automatically insert a predefined copyright or disclaimer notice into messages, typically before they are sent. The command reads the content of this notice from a specified file, allowing for centralized management of legal or organizational text.<br><br>It is commonly configured to run as a message filter within the MH message sending pipeline, for instance, invoked by the <b><code>send</code></b> or <b><code>post</code></b> commands. This ensures consistent application of the notice to all outgoing correspondence, fulfilling compliance requirements and maintaining uniform messaging standards within the MH environment.<br><br>While <code>mh_copyright</code> isn't usually invoked directly by users, its role is crucial in maintaining a consistent and legally compliant email communication stream for MH users. It leverages the modular design of MH, where various utilities process messages in a pipeline fashion.


title: CAVEATS
content:
This command is tightly integrated with and primarily relevant to the <i>MH (Message Handling)</i> email system, which is less common in modern desktop environments.<br><br>The specified copyright file must exist and be readable by the user. Improper configuration or an inaccessible file will prevent the notice from being inserted.<br><br>Its functionality is limited to appending text; it does not handle complex message body modifications or advanced content rendering.


title: INTEGRATION WITH MH PROCESSING
content:
<code>mh_copyright</code> is rarely invoked directly by users. Instead, it is typically configured as a component within the MH message processing pipeline, often via the <b><code>send</code></b> or <b><code>post</code></b> commands' profiles. This automation ensures that all outgoing messages automatically pass through <code>mh_copyright</code>, guaranteeing the consistent application of the notice without manual user intervention for each email.


title: COPYRIGHT FILE CONTENT
content:
The file specified by the <b><code>-file</code></b> option is expected to contain plain text. <code>mh_copyright</code> will append this text to the message, often after a separator, to form the final message body. Users should ensure the content is formatted correctly within the file for optimal appearance in the outgoing email.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <code>mh_copyright</code> command is an integral part of the <i>MH (Message Handling)</i> system, which originated at <i>The RAND Corporation</i> in the late 1970s. MH was revolutionary for its time, providing a modular, command-line interface for email management, contrasting with monolithic mail user agents.<br><br>Developed within this pipeline-oriented philosophy, <code>mh_copyright</code> provided a simple yet effective mechanism for organizations to enforce standardized legal or proprietary notices on outgoing communications. While its direct usage has waned with the shift to more modern email clients and protocols, it represents a foundational approach to automated content modification in early Unix email systems.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>+</b><i>folder</i> ...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies one or more MH mail folders to be checked. The '<b>+</b>' prefix denotes an MH folder. If no folders are specified, <i>mh_lint</i> typically processes the current folder.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mh_lint</i> is a diagnostic utility for the <b>MH (Message Handling System)</b> email client. Its primary function is to examine the integrity and consistency of MH mail folders and their contained messages. It can detect various problems, such as missing message files, incorrect message sequences, corrupted folder structures, or issues with <i>.mh_sequences</i> files.<br><br>By identifying these inconsistencies, <i>mh_lint</i> helps users diagnose and potentially repair problems that might lead to unexpected behavior or data loss within their MH email environment. It typically outputs warnings or errors detailing the issues found, allowing users to take corrective actions, often involving other MH utilities like <i>inc</i>, <i>refile</i>, or manual folder manipulation. It's a crucial tool for maintaining the health of MH mailboxes, especially after crashes, system errors, or manual file system operations that might inadvertently affect MH folder integrity.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mh_lint</i> only <b>reports</b> problems; it does not automatically fix them. Users must manually take corrective action based on its output.<br><br>Can be slow on very large mail folders with numerous messages.<br><br>Requires the <b>MH</b> system to be installed and correctly configured.<br><br>The output can sometimes be cryptic, requiring familiarity with MH folder structures to interpret effectively.


title: OUTPUT
content:
<i>mh_lint</i> typically prints messages to standard output detailing any inconsistencies or errors found within the specified folders. Output may include warnings about missing messages, incorrect file permissions, sequence number issues, or problems with <i>.mh_sequences</i> files. The messages are often prefixed with '<b>WARNING:</b>' or '<b>ERROR:</b>'.


title: USAGE EXAMPLE
content:
To check the current MH folder for inconsistencies:<br><code>mh_lint</code><br><br>To check a specific folder named '<i>inbox</i>' and '<i>archive</i>':<br><code>mh_lint +inbox +archive</code>


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>MH (Message Handling System)</b> itself originated in the late 1970s at RAND Corporation. <i>mh_lint</i> is an integral part of this suite, designed to maintain the integrity of MH mailboxes. Its development track is directly tied to the evolution of the MH suite, embodying the UNIX philosophy of small, specialized tools. It predates many modern email clients and continues to be used in environments where the MH system is preferred.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-q</b>, <b>--query</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Queries and displays the current values of performance metrics.<br><br><b><b>-d</b>, <b>--dump</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Dumps all available counters supported by the HCA.<br><br><b><b>-r</b>, <b>--reset</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Resets all specified (or all if not specified) performance counters on the HCA to zero.<br><br><b><b>-D</b> <i>&lt;device&gt;</i>, <b>--ib_dev</b> <i>&lt;device&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the InfiniBand device (e.g., <i>mlx5_0</i>) to query. If not specified, the first available device is used.<br><br><b><b>-P</b> <i>&lt;port&gt;</i>, <b>--ib_port</b> <i>&lt;port&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the InfiniBand port number (e.g., <i>1</i>) on the device. If not specified, the first available port is used.<br><br><b><b>-c</b> <i>&lt;name&gt;</i>, <b>--counter</b> <i>&lt;name&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Queries a specific counter by its name (e.g., 'PortXmitData'). Can be used multiple times for several counters.<br><br><b><b>-a</b>, <b>--all</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Applies the operation (query, dump, reset) to all available InfiniBand devices and ports found on the system.<br><br><b><b>-S</b>, <b>--show-type</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When dumping or querying, shows the type of each counter (e.g., IB, PCI, MLX-specific).<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mh_metric</i> is a specialized command-line utility provided as part of the Mellanox OFED (OpenFabrics Enterprise Distribution) software suite, now part of NVIDIA Networking. Its primary function is to query, display, and manage performance counters and metrics directly from Mellanox InfiniBand Host Channel Adapters (HCAs).<br><br>It allows administrators and users to gain deep insights into the health and performance of InfiniBand links, tracking crucial statistics such as sent/received packets, bytes, various error types (e.g., local link integrity errors, symbol errors), and specific Virtual Lane (VL) counters. This tool is invaluable for detailed performance analysis, identifying and troubleshooting network bottlenecks, and ensuring the optimal and reliable operation of InfiniBand-based high-performance computing (HPC) clusters, AI infrastructures, and data centers.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li>Requires Mellanox InfiniBand Host Channel Adapters (HCAs) and the Mellanox OFED (OpenFabrics Enterprise Distribution) software stack to be installed.</li><li>Often requires root privileges to access and modify HCA performance counters directly.</li><li>The collected metrics are specific to Mellanox hardware and may not be directly comparable or available on InfiniBand hardware from other vendors.</li><li>Output can be verbose, making direct parsing challenging without scripting.</li></ul>


title: METRIC TYPES
content:
<i>mh_metric</i> is capable of querying various categories of counters, including standard InfiniBand (IB) port counters, PCI-related counters, and a rich set of Mellanox-specific (MLX) counters that offer unique insights into the HCA's internal operations and link characteristics.


title: USAGE CONTEXT
content:
This command is primarily utilized by network administrators, HPC engineers, and system integrators for tasks such as performance tuning, debugging complex network issues, validating link integrity, and capacity planning in environments heavily reliant on InfiniBand interconnects for high-throughput and low-latency communication.


title: HISTORY
content:
InfiniBand technology gained prominence in the early 2000s as a high-performance interconnect for HPC and data centers. Mellanox Technologies (later acquired by NVIDIA) emerged as a dominant vendor in this space. <i>mh_metric</i> was developed as part of the Mellanox OFED software stack to provide detailed, vendor-specific insights into HCA performance counters. Its development and usage grew in parallel with the widespread adoption of Mellanox InfiniBand adapters, becoming a crucial tool for administrators seeking granular visibility and control over their InfiniBand network fabric, complementing more generic InfiniBand monitoring tools.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--plugin</b> <i>&lt;command&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Run a specific plugin command.<br><br><b><b>--clean</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts <i>micro</i> with no plugins or config files loaded. Useful for debugging.<br><br><b><b>--options</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative options file to load.<br><br><b><b>--config-dir</b> <i>&lt;dir&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative configuration directory.<br><br><b><b>--debug</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables debug logging.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the <i>micro</i> version and exits.<br><br><b><b>--truecolor</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces true color support (24-bit color).<br><br><b><b>--tty</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces <i>micro</i> to use a tty even if it doesn't detect one.<br><br><b><b>--raw</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces <i>micro</i> to read raw bytes from stdin.<br><br><b><b>--</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Marks the end of options, allowing filenames starting with '-'.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>micro</i> is a modern and intuitive terminal-based text editor designed to be easy to use while offering extensive customization and powerful features. Unlike traditional editors like <b>vi</b> or <b>emacs</b> with steep learning curves, <i>micro</i> offers familiar keybindings (like <b>Ctrl-S</b> for save, <b>Ctrl-Q</b> for quit) making it accessible to newcomers. Written in <b>Go</b>, it's cross-platform and available on various operating systems.<br><br>Its advanced features include multiple cursors for simultaneous editing, a built-in plugin manager, syntax highlighting for over 100 languages, mouse support, true color support, and a highly configurable setup using <b>JSON</b> files. It aims to bridge the gap between simple editors like <b>nano</b> and powerful, complex ones like <b>vim</b>, providing a pleasant and efficient editing experience directly in your terminal.


title: CAVEATS
content:
While <i>micro</i> is powerful, it can consume more memory than simpler editors for very large files due to its modern features. It's not typically pre-installed on most Linux distributions, requiring a separate installation. Full functionality, especially true color and mouse support, depends on a capable terminal emulator.


title: KEY FEATURES
content:
<i>micro</i> boasts a variety of modern features including multiple cursors, split windows, syntax highlighting (over 100 languages), mouse support, copy/paste with system clipboard, automatic indentation, and a built-in help system. It is designed to be highly intuitive with common keybindings familiar to GUI editor users.


title: CONFIGURATION AND PLUGINS
content:
<i>micro</i> is highly customizable through its <b>JSON</b> configuration files for keybindings and options. It also features a robust plugin system, allowing users to extend its functionality with community-developed plugins. Plugins can be installed and managed directly from within the editor.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>micro</i> was created by <b>Zach Archer</b>, with its first release around 2016. Its primary goal was to address the need for a modern, user-friendly, yet powerful terminal editor that could serve as an accessible alternative to <b>nano</b> while offering capabilities akin to <b>vim</b> or <b>emacs</b> without their steep learning curves. It's written in the <b>Go</b> programming language, which contributes to its cross-platform nature and ease of deployment. Since its inception, <i>micro</i> has gained significant popularity for its balance of simplicity and advanced features.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>microcom</b> [<I>options</I>] <I>device</I><br><br>Example: <b>microcom</b> -p /dev/ttyUSB0 -s 115200<br>Example: echo "ATZ" | <b>microcom</b> -p /dev/ttyS0 -s 9600


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-p, --port <I>device</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the serial port device to use, e.g., <I>/dev/ttyS0</I> or <I>/dev/ttyUSB0</I>.<br><br><b>-s, --speed <I>baudrate</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the communication speed in bits per second (baud rate), e.g., 9600, 115200.<br><br><b>-d, --databits <I>bits</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Configures the number of data bits per character (5, 6, 7, or 8). Default is 8.<br><br><b>-b, --stopbits <I>bits</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the number of stop bits (1 or 2). Default is 1.<br><br><b>-P, --parity <I>type</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the parity check: <I>n</I> (none), <I>o</I> (odd), or <I>e</I> (even). Default is none.<br><br><b>-H, --hangup</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a DTR hangup on exit, often used to reset modems.<br><br><b>-X, --flow-control <I>type</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets flow control: <I>n</I> (none), <I>h</I> (hardware RTS/CTS), or <I>s</I> (software XON/XOFF).<br><br><b>-N, --nocr</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents sending a carriage return (CR) character when Enter is pressed.<br><br><b>-e, --escape <I>char</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the escape character. Default is <I>Ctrl-A</I>. Followed by 'X' to exit.<br><br><b>-o, --logfile <I>file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Logs all incoming and outgoing data to the specified file.<br><br><b>-c, --capture-file <I>file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Captures only incoming data to the specified file.<br><br><b>-q, --quiet</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses most informational messages during operation.<br><br><b>-v, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the <b>microcom</b> version information and exits.<br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows a help message summarizing command usage and options.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>microcom</b> is a lightweight, non-interactive serial port communication utility, typically distributed as part of the <b>minicom</b> package. While <b>minicom</b> provides a full-featured, menu-driven terminal emulator, <b>microcom</b> focuses on simplicity and command-line operability, making it ideal for scripting and automated tasks involving serial devices.<br><br>It allows users to send and receive data over a specified serial port (e.g., RS-232, USB-to-serial adapters), configuring parameters like baud rate, data bits, stop bits, and parity. This makes it invaluable for interacting with embedded systems, network equipment (like routers or switches with console ports), modems, or other hardware that communicates via a serial interface.<br><br>Unlike more complex terminal programs, <b>microcom</b> doesn't offer advanced features like file transfer protocols (ZModem, XModem) or extensive terminal emulation. Its strength lies in its ability to quickly establish a serial connection from the command line, pipe data into it, and capture output, facilitating debugging, configuration, and data logging in automated environments. It provides a straightforward way to bridge a shell script with a serial device.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>microcom</b> is intentionally minimal. It lacks advanced features found in <b>minicom</b>, such as file transfer protocols (ZModem, XModem) and extensive terminal emulation capabilities.<br><br>Users must have appropriate permissions (e.g., be part of the <I>dialout</I> or <I>uucp</I> group) to access serial port devices.<br><br>The default exit sequence is <I>Ctrl-A</I> followed by <I>X</I>, which might be unexpected for new users. This can be changed with the <I>-e</I> option.


title: EXITING MICROCOM
content:
By default, <b>microcom</b> exits when you press <I>Ctrl-A</I> followed by <I>X</I>. The escape character can be changed using the <I>-e</I> option.


title: SCRIPTING USAGE
content:
<b>microcom</b> is particularly useful for scripting. You can send commands to a serial device by piping input to <b>microcom</b> and capture output by redirecting its standard output. <br>Example: echo "status" | <b>microcom</b> -p /dev/ttyS0 -s 9600 -o output.log


title: PERMISSIONS
content:
Ensure the user running <b>microcom</b> has read/write access to the serial device file (e.g., <I>/dev/ttyUSB0</I>). This usually means being a member of the <I>dialout</I> or <I>uucp</I> group. You can add a user to the dialout group with: <br>sudo usermod -a -G dialout <I>your_username</I> (requires re-login).


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>microcom</b> is a component of the <b>minicom</b> package, a popular terminal emulator for Unix-like systems. <b>minicom</b> itself originated in the early 1990s as a powerful alternative to DOS-based terminal programs like Procomm Plus.<br><br>While <b>minicom</b> evolved into a full-featured, menu-driven interactive tool, <b>microcom</b> was developed specifically to address the need for a non-interactive, command-line utility. Its design prioritizes ease of integration into shell scripts and automated workflows, offering direct serial port control without the overhead of a graphical or interactive interface. This divergence allowed users to leverage the core serial communication capabilities of <b>minicom</b> in headless or programmatic environments.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a list of common command-line options and their descriptions.<br><br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the current version of Microsoft Edge.<br><br><br><b><b>--new-window</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Opens a new browser window, even if other windows are already open.<br><br><br><b><b>--incognito</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Launches Edge in incognito (private browsing) mode, which prevents browsing history, cookies, and site data from being saved.<br><br><br><b><b>--app=<i>&lt;URL&gt;</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Opens the specified URL in a simplified, app-like window without the standard browser UI elements like address bar or tabs.<br><br><br><b><b>--profile-directory=<i>&lt;name&gt;</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the user profile to use (e.g., 'Profile 1'). If the profile does not exist, a new one may be created.<br><br><br><b><b>--no-sandbox</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables the browser's sandbox security feature. <i>Not recommended for general use due to security risks, primarily for debugging or specific environments.</i><br><br><br><b><b>--headless</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Runs Edge in headless mode, without a graphical user interface. Useful for automated testing or server-side rendering.<br><br><br><b><b>--proxy-server=<i>&lt;host:port&gt;</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Configures Edge to use a specific proxy server for all network requests.<br><br><br><b><b>--user-data-dir=<i>&lt;path&gt;</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets a custom directory for user data, including profiles, cache, and extensions, overriding the default location.<br><br><br><b><b>--disable-gpu</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables GPU hardware acceleration. Useful for troubleshooting rendering issues or on systems without proper GPU drivers.<br><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>microsoft-edge</b> command invokes the Microsoft Edge web browser on Linux, providing a full-featured browsing experience. Based on the <i>Chromium</i> open-source project, it offers strong performance, privacy features, and compatibility with a vast array of web standards and extensions. Originally developed with Microsoft's own <i>EdgeHTML</i> engine, it was re-engineered on Chromium in 2019 to enhance cross-platform consistency and web compatibility. On Linux, it provides a familiar interface for users accustomed to Edge on Windows or macOS, supporting features like collections, vertical tabs, and integration with Microsoft services, while also adhering to common Linux desktop conventions for application management and updates. It aims to offer a unified browsing experience across various operating systems.


title: CAVEATS
content:
As a proprietary application, Microsoft Edge on Linux differs from many native Linux tools, potentially raising concerns for users preferring open-source software. While generally performant, like all modern web browsers, it can be resource-intensive, especially with multiple tabs or extensions. Users should be aware of Microsoft's data collection policies.


title: INSTALLATION
content:
Microsoft Edge is typically installed on Linux via official <b>.deb</b> or <b>.rpm</b> packages downloaded from Microsoft's website. Once installed, it integrates with the system's package manager (e.g., <b>apt</b>, <b>dnf</b>) to receive updates.<br>


title: USER DATA LOCATION
content:
By default, Microsoft Edge stores user data (profiles, cache, extensions, etc.) in a directory like <b>~/.config/microsoft-edge/</b> within the user's home directory.<br>


title: HISTORY
content:
Microsoft Edge's journey on Linux began after its fundamental shift from the proprietary <i>EdgeHTML</i> engine to <i>Chromium</i> in 2019. This re-engineering paved the way for its cross-platform expansion. Development and preview builds for Linux (Canary and Dev channels) were first made available in late 2020, with a stable release following in 2021. The move aimed to provide a consistent browsing experience for enterprise users and developers across different operating systems, allowing for easier web development and deployment.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<I>middleman</I> [<I>options</I>] <I>--listen</I> <I>addr:port</I> <I>--forward</I> <I>target_addr:target_port</I>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--listen <addr:port></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the local address and port where <I>middleman</I> will listen for incoming connections.<br><br><b>--forward <target_addr:target_port></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the destination address and port to which intercepted traffic will be forwarded.<br><br><b>--protocol <proto></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the network protocol to handle. Common values could be <I>tcp</I> (default) or <I>udp</I>.<br><br><b>--log <file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables logging of all intercepted data to the specified file.<br><br><b>--modify <script></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Executes an external script or applies predefined rules to modify data in transit (e.g., <I>req.js</I>, <I>resp.js</I>).<br><br><b>--transparent</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Configures <I>middleman</I> to operate in a transparent proxy mode (requires network configuration).<br><br><b>--verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Increases verbosity, showing more details about connections and data flow.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <I>middleman</I> command, if it existed, would serve as a versatile network proxy and interception tool. It would enable users to establish a conduit for network traffic, listening on a specified address and port, and forwarding incoming connections to a designated target. Its primary function would be to allow inspection, logging, or even modification of data exchanged between two network endpoints. This hypothetical utility could be invaluable for network debugging, security analysis (e.g., man-in-the-middle attacks in controlled environments), or routing specific application traffic through a controlled intermediary. It might support various protocols like TCP and UDP and offer options for data manipulation or filtering based on user-defined rules.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<B>Important Note:</B> The <I>middleman</I> command is <B>not a standard Linux command</B> and does not exist in typical distributions. This analysis describes a hypothetical utility based on its name. Any command with such capabilities, if it were to exist, would require significant security considerations and should be used with extreme caution. Improper use could lead to network disruptions, security vulnerabilities, or privacy breaches.


title: CONCEPT OF MAN-IN-THE-MIDDLE (MITM) ATTACKS
content:
The hypothetical <I>middleman</I> command directly mirrors the operational principles of a Man-in-the-Middle attack, where an an attacker secretly relays and possibly alters the communication between two parties who believe they are communicating directly with each other. Tools enabling such operations are crucial in cybersecurity for penetration testing, vulnerability assessment, and analyzing network protocols.


title: NETWORK DEBUGGING AND ANALYSIS
content:
If such a command existed, its utility would extend beyond malicious purposes to legitimate network debugging, performance monitoring, and protocol analysis, allowing developers and administrators to inspect the exact data flows between applications and services.


title: HISTORY
content:
As <I>middleman</I> is a hypothetical command, it has no actual development history or usage. Its concept is drawn from the common need for network traffic interception and manipulation, a functionality typically provided by specialized tools or custom scripts.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>URL</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the Uniform Resource Locator (web address) to open. If no URL is provided, Midori typically opens its default home page or the previously closed tabs, depending on configuration.<br><br><b><b>--new-window</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Opens the specified URL in a new browser window, regardless of whether a Midori instance is already running.<br><br><b><b>--new-tab</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Opens the specified URL in a new tab within an existing Midori window. If no window is open, a new one will be created.<br><br><b><b>--private-window</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Opens a new private browsing window, which does not save browsing history, cookies, or site data after the session ends.<br><br><b><b>--profile=<i>PATH</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a custom user profile directory to use. This allows for separate browsing data (bookmarks, history, settings) for different users or purposes.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version information of the Midori browser and exits.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows a summary of command-line options and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
Midori is a free and open-source web browser known for its focus on speed, low resource consumption, and privacy features. <br><br>Originally developed using the WebKit rendering engine (specifically WebKitGTK), it gained popularity as a lightweight alternative to more resource-intensive browsers. Over its history, Midori has undergone several significant architectural changes, including transitions to different rendering engines such as Gecko, Electron (using Chromium), and even its own custom engine, Midas, in various iterations. <br><br>Its primary goal has consistently been to provide a responsive and user-friendly browsing experience, particularly appealing to users with older hardware or those prioritizing efficiency. Key features often include integrated ad-blocking, private browsing modes, and a customizable user interface. Midori has been a default or recommended browser in several lightweight Linux distributions and desktop environments, reflecting its design philosophy.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Midori's underlying technology (rendering engine) has changed multiple times throughout its history, meaning the specific features, performance, and command-line options can vary significantly between different versions or forks. Its development and maintenance have been somewhat inconsistent compared to larger, corporate-backed browsers. Availability might depend on the specific Linux distribution and its package repositories.


title: RENDERING ENGINE EVOLUTION
content:
Midori has famously used a variety of rendering engines over its lifetime, including <i>WebKitGTK</i> (its original engine), <i>Gecko</i> (Mozilla's engine), and <i>Electron</i> (which uses Chromium's engine). More recently, some versions have also incorporated a custom engine called <i>Midas</i>. This frequent change reflects efforts to adapt to web standards, improve performance, and manage dependencies.


title: DESKTOP INTEGRATION
content:
Being built with GTK, Midori has historically offered excellent integration with GTK-based desktop environments like Xfce, GNOME, and LXDE. This makes it a natural fit for these environments, often providing a consistent look and feel with other native applications.


title: HISTORY
content:
Midori was initially released in 2007 by Christian Dywan, leveraging WebKitGTK as its rendering engine. It quickly gained traction as a lightweight, fast, and GTK-centric web browser, becoming a part of the Xfce Goodies project for a period. Its design principle was to be simple, efficient, and privacy-friendly. Over the years, Midori's development saw various shifts, including transitions to different rendering engines like Gecko and Electron (based on Chromium), and even the creation of its own Midas engine, largely due to challenges with upstream WebKitGTK and the desire to offer new features or address performance. This evolution has led to multiple distinct iterations of the browser, with different maintainers and focuses, yet maintaining its core identity as a resource-efficient browsing option.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-V</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version number of <i>mii-tool</i>.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides more detailed output, showing additional MII register information and capabilities.<br><br><b><b>-w</b>, <b>--watch</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Continuously monitors the specified interface for link status changes, updating the display every two seconds until interrupted.<br><br><b><b>-l</b>, <b>--log</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Logs link status changes to the system syslog facility, typically <i>/var/log/messages</i> or similar.<br><br><b><b>-R</b>, <b>--reset</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Resets the MII to its default power-on state, potentially causing a link renegotiation.<br><br><b><b>-r</b>, <b>--restart</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Restarts the autonegotiation process on the specified interface, prompting the network card to re-evaluate link parameters with its peer.<br><br><b><b>-A</b> <<i>modes</i>>, <b>--advertise</b>=<<i>modes</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the autonegotiation advertisement modes. <i>modes</i> can be a comma-separated list of supported speeds and duplex modes, e.g., <i>100baseTx-FD,10baseT-HD</i>.<br><br><b><b>-F</b> <<i>mode</i>>, <b>--force</b>=<<i>mode</i>></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces the interface to a specific link mode, bypassing autonegotiation. Examples: <i>100baseTx-FD</i> for 100 Mbps full-duplex, or <i>10baseT-HD</i> for 10 Mbps half-duplex. Use with caution.<br><br><b><b>-D</b>, <b>--debug</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows low-level debug information, often including raw MII register values, useful for troubleshooting.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mii-tool</i> is a command-line utility used to examine and control the Media Independent Interface (MII) of Ethernet network devices. It provides detailed information about the link status of an Ethernet adapter, including whether a physical link is established, the detected speed (e.g., 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps), and the duplex mode (half-duplex or full-duplex).<br><br>Beyond querying, <i>mii-tool</i> also offers functionality to modify MII registers, allowing users to force specific link settings like speed and duplex, or to restart the autonegotiation process. This tool is particularly relevant for older 10/100 Mbps Ethernet hardware that relies on the MII standard for physical layer communication and autonegotiation. For modern Gigabit Ethernet and beyond, the more comprehensive and powerful <i>ethtool</i> utility has largely superseded <i>mii-tool</i>.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mii-tool</i> is largely considered <b>deprecated</b> for modern network adapters (Gigabit Ethernet and higher). Most contemporary Linux distributions and network drivers rely on the <i>ethtool</i> utility for interface configuration and diagnostics, which provides a more comprehensive set of features and supports newer physical layer standards. Forcing link modes with <b>-F</b> can lead to connectivity problems if the connected device is set to autonegotiate; autonegotiation is generally the recommended approach for reliable connections.


title: MII AND AUTONEGOTIATION
content:
The Media Independent Interface (MII) is a standard interface used to connect an Ethernet MAC (Media Access Controller) to a PHY (Physical Layer) chip. It's crucial for 10/100 Mbps Ethernet to determine link speed and duplex settings. <b>Autonegotiation</b> is a feature of Ethernet over twisted pair that allows connected devices to automatically choose the best common transmission parameters, such as speed, duplex mode, and flow control. While <i>mii-tool</i> can force these settings, autonegotiation is typically preferred to ensure optimal and stable network connections, as misconfiguration can lead to 'duplex mismatch' errors and severe performance degradation.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mii-tool</i> emerged as a specialized utility for managing Ethernet adapters that conformed to the MII standard, which was prevalent for 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps interfaces. Its development was tied to the capabilities exposed by network card drivers through the kernel's MII API. As network technology advanced to Gigabit Ethernet and beyond, new interfaces (like GMII, RGMII) and more complex management requirements arose, leading to the development and widespread adoption of <i>ethtool</i> as the de-facto standard tool for Ethernet device configuration and statistics on Linux. Consequently, <i>mii-tool</i>'s usage has declined significantly, and it is now primarily of historical interest or for use with very old hardware where <i>ethtool</i> might not provide equivalent functionality.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-n <i>count</i>, --number=<i>count</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the number of times the <i>command</i> should be executed. If omitted, the default is 1000.<br><br><b>-s, --silent</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses the standard output and standard error of the repeated <i>command</i>, showing only <i>mille</i>'s own messages.<br><br><b>-d <i>delay</i>, --delay=<i>delay</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Introduces a pause (in seconds) between each execution of the <i>command</i>. Useful for rate limiting or observing intermediate states.<br><br><b>-q, --quiet</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Operates in quiet mode, suppressing informational output from <i>mille</i> itself, such as completion messages.<br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits.<br><br><b>-v, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays version information and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <i>mille</i> command is a <b>hypothetical utility</b> designed to execute a specified command or script a given number of times. By default, if no count is provided, it would repeat the command 1000 times. This utility's primary purpose would be to automate repetitive tasks, making it ideal for scenarios requiring a large number of identical operations. For instance, it could be employed for performance testing a server by sending 1000 requests, stress testing a file system by creating numerous small files, or simply running a cleanup script multiple times. It provides options to control the exact number of repetitions, allowing for flexible testing or batch processing. Furthermore, users could suppress the standard output of the repeated command to avoid overwhelming the console, and introduce a configurable delay between each execution, which is crucial for managing resource load or simulating real-world usage patterns. This design concept aims to provide a straightforward way to loop command executions efficiently.<br><br><b>Please note:</b> 'mille' is <b>not a standard or commonly recognized Linux command</b> found in typical distributions. This description is provided as a purely hypothetical analysis based on the command's name, which signifies 'thousand' in French, suggesting a tool potentially centered around a default of one thousand iterations.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The command 'mille' is <b>not a standard Linux command</b>. This analysis describes a <b>hypothetical utility</b> based on the name's meaning ('thousand'). As such, it does not exist in typical Linux distributions and cannot be used. Any attempt to run 'mille' on a standard system will likely result in a 'command not found' error. This information is purely conceptual and for educational purposes, demonstrating how a command with such a name and purpose might function.


title: HYPOTHETICAL USAGE EXAMPLES
content:
To hypothetically run a script named 'my_task.sh' 1000 times (the default):<br><code>mille ./my_task.sh</code><br><br>To run it 500 times with a 0.1-second delay between each execution:<br><code>mille -n 500 -d 0.1 ./my_task.sh</code><br><br>To execute 'echo Hello' 1000 times silently (without showing 'Hello' for each execution):<br><code>mille -s echo Hello</code><br><br>To create 1000 empty files named 'file0001.txt' to 'file1000.txt' (requires a more complex command, but illustrates the repetition):<br><code>mille -n 1000 sh -c 'touch file$(printf "%04d" $mille_ITER).txt'</code> (Assuming an internal iterator variable like <code>$mille_ITER</code> would be available).


title: HISTORY
content:
As 'mille' is a <b>hypothetical command</b>, it has no actual history of development or usage within the Linux ecosystem. Its conceptualization is based on the common need for repeating operations and the linguistic meaning of 'mille' (thousand), suggesting a tool potentially defaulting to a thousand iterations or handling large batches. If it were a real command, it might have evolved from simple shell scripts designed for repetitive tasks into a compiled utility for performance and advanced features.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
for(1) (shell built-in loop, often used for repetition), while(1) (shell built-in loop, often used for repetition), seq(1) (generates sequences of numbers), sleep(1) (pauses execution for a specified time), xargs(1) (build and execute command lines from standard input)


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays usage information and exits.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the command's version and exits.<br><br><b><i>FILE</i>...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;One or more file paths to be opened. The command determines the <b>MIME</b> type for each file and opens it with the appropriate application.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mimeopen</b> command, while not a universally standard Linux utility across all distributions (often its functionality is encapsulated within tools like <b>xdg-open</b>), serves the purpose of opening a specified file using the default application associated with its detected <b>MIME</b> type. It streamlines the process of launching various document types, images, or multimedia files by abstracting away the need to know which specific application handles them.<br><br>When invoked, <b>mimeopen</b> typically first determines the <b>MIME</b> type of the given file (e.g., <i>text/plain</i>, <i>image/jpeg</i>, <i>application/pdf</i>). It then consults a database of file associations, usually managed by the desktop environment (like <i>XFCE</i>, <i>GNOME</i>, <i>KDE</i>, or <i>LXQt</i>), to find the preferred application for that <b>MIME</b> type. Finally, it attempts to launch the detected application with the file as an argument. This command simplifies user interaction, allowing them to simply "open" a file without manually selecting an application.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The <b>mimeopen</b> command is not a standard, pre-installed utility on all Linux distributions. Its functionality is most commonly provided by the <b>xdg-open</b> command (part of <i>xdg-utils</i>), which serves as a cross-desktop utility for opening files and URLs. If <b>mimeopen</b> is present, it might be a specific desktop environment's internal helper script, a third-party utility, or a simplified wrapper that performs a subset of <b>xdg-open</b>'s capabilities. Users should typically prefer <b>xdg-open</b> for robust and cross-environment file opening.


title: MIME TYPE DETECTION
content:
<b>mimeopen</b> (or its equivalent) relies on underlying utilities like <b>file(1)</b> or desktop environment-specific libraries to accurately determine the <b>MIME</b> type of a given file.


title: DEFAULT APPLICATION CONFIGURATION
content:
The choice of which application opens a specific <b>MIME</b> type is typically configured through the desktop environment's settings or by using utilities like <b>xdg-mime</b> to set preferred applications.


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept of opening files based on their <b>MIME</b> type emerged with the rise of graphical desktop environments on Linux and Unix-like systems. Early attempts involved simple scripts and configuration files (like <i>mailcap</i>). Over time, more sophisticated frameworks like <i>xdg-utils</i> (which <b>xdg-open</b> is a part of) were developed by <i>freedesktop.org</i> to standardize this behavior across different desktop environments (<i>GNOME</i>, <i>KDE</i>, <i>XFCE</i>, <i>LXQt</i>, etc.). While <b>mimeopen</b> itself isn't a historically distinct project, it represents the core mechanism that <b>xdg-open</b> and similar tools employ to provide a consistent "open file" experience.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<code><b>file</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>] <i>FILE</i>...<br><i>Specifically for MIME type detection:</i><br><b>file</b> --mime-type [<i>OPTIONS</i>] <i>FILE</i>...</code>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--mime-type</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs only the MIME type string for the specified file(s), without additional information.<br><br><b>-i, --mime</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs the full MIME type string, including encoding (e.g., <i>text/plain; charset=us-ascii</i>) for the specified file(s).<br><br><b>-b, --brief</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not prepend filenames to output lines; outputs only the detected type information.<br><br><b>-z, --compress</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Attempts to look inside compressed files (e.g., .gz, .bz2) to determine the type of the uncompressed content.<br><br><b>-L, --dereference</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;If a file is a symbolic link, dereference it and check the file it points to, rather than the link itself.<br><br><b>-f FILE, --files-from FILE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Reads a list of filenames to analyze from the specified FILE, with one filename per line.<br><br><b>-s, --special-files</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Normally, <b>file</b> only tests regular files. This option causes it to also test special files like block or character devices.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
A MIME type (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) is a standard that indicates the nature and format of a document, file, or assortment of bytes. It's crucial for applications to correctly handle files, especially in web and email contexts. The `mimetype` functionality, primarily provided by the <b>file</b> command on Linux, analyzes the content of a file (not just its extension) to determine its actual type, such as <i>text/plain</i>, <i>image/jpeg</i>, or <i>application/pdf</i>. This command uses a 'magic' database of file formats and patterns to identify file types reliably. It's essential for tasks like configuring web servers to serve content with the correct <i>Content-Type</i> header, validating file uploads, or simply understanding the true nature of an unknown file. Unlike relying solely on file extensions, which can be misleading or easily changed, <b>file --mime-type</b> attempts to inspect the binary data, providing a more robust identification.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The detection relies on a 'magic' database which may not cover all file types or the latest versions of formats. In some cases, especially for generic binary files or files without clear internal headers, the determined MIME type might be overly broad or incorrect. It does not validate file integrity or check for malware, only identifies the file type.


title: MAGIC DATABASE (<CODE>MAGIC(5)</CODE>)
content:
The <b>file</b> command determines MIME types by consulting a 'magic' database (typically located in <i>/usr/share/misc/magic</i> or similar system paths). This database contains patterns and offsets within files that correspond to specific file formats. Users can extend or customize this database to recognize new or proprietary file types. Refer to the <b>magic(5)</b> manual page for detailed information on its format and usage.


title: COMMON USE CASES
content:
Determining MIME types is vital for various applications. Web servers (e.g., Apache, Nginx) use it to send the correct <i>Content-Type</i> HTTP header, ensuring browsers render content properly. It's also used in email clients to identify attachment types, in graphical file managers for displaying appropriate icons, and in security systems for content filtering, malware detection, and forensic analysis.


title: HISTORY
content:
The underlying <b>file</b> command, which provides the `mimetype` functionality, has a long history dating back to Research Unix. Its capability to detect MIME types was integrated as the MIME standard gained prominence in the internet era, expanding its original purpose of simple file identification to support modern internet protocols and applications requiring standardized content type declarations. This evolution ensures <b>file</b> remains a cornerstone utility for system administrators and developers.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-b, --brief</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses the filename output, showing only the MIME type.<br><br><b>-n, --no-newline</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents a trailing newline character in the output.<br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a concise help message and exits.<br><br><b>-v, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the command's version information and exits.<br><br><b>-o <I>format</I>, --output-format=<I>format</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a custom output format using placeholders like <I>%m</I> (MIME type) and <I>%f</I> (filename).<br><br><b>-c, --check-contents</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces the command to check file contents for type detection, especially if extension lookup fails.<br><br><b>-a, --all-ext</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When checking by extension, lists all possible MIME types associated with the extension, instead of stopping at the first match.<br><br><b>-l, --lookup-filesystem</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Attempts to determine the MIME type based on filesystem information (e.g., for block devices, character devices).<br><br><b>-g, --guess-by-contents</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces the command to guess the MIME type based solely on file contents, ignoring extensions.<br><br><b>-P, --no-pipe</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents reading from standard input if it's a pipe.<br><br><b>-r, --recursive</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Recursively processes files within directories.<br><br><b>-s, --symlinks</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Follows symbolic links when processing files.<br><br><b>-D, --dereference</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Dereferences symbolic link arguments, acting on the target file.<br><br><b>-L, --mime-type-only</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs only the primary MIME type without any additional description.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mimetype</b> command is a utility designed to identify the MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) type of a given file. Unlike simply relying on file extensions, <b>mimetype</b> typically analyzes the file's content, often by checking "magic numbers" — specific sequences of bytes at the beginning of a file that uniquely identify its format. This robust content-based identification is crucial for accurately determining a file's nature, especially when extensions are missing, incorrect, or misleading. Common MIME types include <I>text/plain</I>, <I>image/jpeg</I>, <I>application/pdf</I>, and <I>video/mp4</I>.<br><br>While many Linux systems primarily use the <b>file</b> command with the <I>--mime-type</I> (or <I>-i</I>) option for this purpose, a dedicated <b>mimetype</b> utility (often provided by packages like <I>libfile-mimeinfo-perl</I>) offers specific options tailored for MIME type detection and output formatting. Its accurate identification is vital for web servers (to send correct <I>Content-Type</I> headers), email clients, and desktop environments (for choosing appropriate applications to open files).


title: CAVEATS
content:
The availability and specific behavior of the <b>mimetype</b> command can vary significantly across Linux distributions. Many systems use the <b>file</b> command with its <I>-i</I> or <I>--mime-type</I> option as the primary tool for MIME type detection. A standalone <b>mimetype</b> executable, if present, is often provided by a specific package (e.g., <I>libfile-mimeinfo-perl</I>) and may have a distinct set of features and options. Ensure you consult your system's documentation for the exact implementation.


title: CONTENT VS. EXTENSION-BASED DETECTION
content:
Unlike simple file extension checks (e.g., <I>.txt</I> for text, <I>.jpg</I> for JPEG), <b>mimetype</b> primarily identifies file types by analyzing their internal content, particularly through "magic numbers" and structural patterns. This method is far more reliable as it ensures accurate identification even if a file has an incorrect or missing extension.


title: MAGIC FILES
content:
The <b>mimetype</b> command, like the <b>file</b> command, relies on a database of "magic numbers" and patterns stored in configuration files (often located in <I>/usr/share/file/magic/</I>). These "magic files" contain rules that map specific byte sequences or file structures to their corresponding MIME types and human-readable descriptions. For accurate detection, these files must be up-to-date.


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept of identifying file types by content originates from the Unix <b>file</b> command, which dates back to the early days of Unix. As the internet evolved and the need for standardized content negotiation became apparent, MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) types were introduced in the early 1990s, becoming critical for email and later for the World Wide Web. Dedicated <b>mimetype</b> utilities, while sometimes wrappers around <b>file</b>, emerged to provide a more focused interface for MIME type detection, often with more granular control over output and a stronger emphasis on MIME specifications. Their development parallels the increasing importance of structured data exchange and content identification in networked environments.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
The primary executable command provided by the <b>min12xxw</b> driver package is <i>pbm2lwxl</i>.<br><b>pbm2lwxl</b> [<i>options</i>] [<i>inputfile</i>]<br>The <i>inputfile</i> is typically a PBM format file. If no input file is specified, <i>pbm2lwxl</i> reads from standard input. Output is sent to standard output.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-m</b> <i>&lt;num&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the margins for printing. The exact units and effect depend on the driver's implementation and the printer model.<br><br><b><b>-r</b> <i>&lt;res&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the printing resolution in DPI (dots per inch), commonly 600 or 1200, which affects print quality.<br><br><b><b>-f</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces duplex (two-sided) printing. This option is primarily applicable to the Konica Minolta 1350W model if it supports automatic duplexing and the driver correctly implements it.<br><br><b><b>-c</b> <i>&lt;num&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the color mode for printing. For these monochrome printers, this might control darkness levels, dithering patterns, or specific internal rendering modes.<br><br><b><b>-s</b> <i>&lt;size&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the paper size for the print job, e.g., <i>A4</i>, <i>Letter</i>. The driver translates this into the printer's native paper size settings for correct page layout.<br><br><b><b>-o</b> <i>&lt;num&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the image output mode or quality level, potentially affecting rendering algorithms, compression, or print speed.<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, causing the utility to print detailed information about its operation to standard error, which is highly useful for debugging purposes.<br><br><b><b>-V</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version information of the <i>pbm2lwxl</i> utility and then exits immediately.<br><br><b><b>-d</b> <i>&lt;device&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the output device or port. In a typical CUPS setup, this option is usually handled internally by the printing system and not directly by the user.<br><br><b><b>-x</b> <i>&lt;num&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets a horizontal (X) offset for the printed image on the page, in units determined by the driver (e.g., pixels or dots).<br><br><b><b>-y</b> <i>&lt;num&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets a vertical (Y) offset for the printed image on the page, in units determined by the driver.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>min12xxw</b> (Minolta 12xxW) refers to a collection of drivers and utilities designed to enable printing on Konica Minolta 1200W, 1250W, 1300W, and 1350W series laser printers under Linux and other Unix-like operating systems. These printers are often GDI (Graphical Device Interface) printers, meaning the host computer handles much of the rendering, requiring specific vendor-supplied or community-developed drivers. The core executable component of the <b>min12xxw</b> package is typically <i>pbm2lwxl</i>, a filter program that converts PBM (Portable Bitmap) format images into the proprietary format understood by these Minolta printers.<br><br>This driver suite integrates with the CUPS (Common Unix Printing System) architecture, allowing users to configure and manage these printers through standard printing interfaces. Without this driver, these specific Konica Minolta GDI printers would be inoperable on Linux. It effectively bridges the gap between generic print data streams and the printer's specific rendering requirements, making these older, budget-friendly laser printers usable in a Linux environment.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li><b>GDI Printer Nature</b>: These printers are GDI-based, meaning they rely heavily on the host system's CPU for rendering. This can sometimes lead to slower print speeds or specific compatibility challenges compared to printers with built-in PostScript or PCL support.</li><li><b>Limited Support</b>: The <b>min12xxw</b> driver targets a specific, older range of Konica Minolta printers. Compatibility with newer Linux distributions or kernel versions might require manual configuration, or may not be officially supported, though community efforts keep it alive.</li><li><b>Proprietary Format</b>: The driver converts data to a proprietary LwXL format, which is not publicly documented. This makes direct troubleshooting of printer communication without the driver extremely difficult.</li><li><b>Feature Limitations</b>: The open-source driver might not support all advanced hardware features of the printer, such as specific paper trays, advanced finishing options, or certain diagnostic functions, if they were not reverse-engineered or implemented.</li></ul>


title: DRIVER INTEGRATION WITH CUPS
content:
The <b>min12xxw</b> driver, specifically its <i>pbm2lwxl</i> component, is designed to integrate seamlessly with the Common Unix Printing System (CUPS). When a print job is sent to a Konica Minolta 12xxW series printer configured with this driver, CUPS typically pipelines the print data (often PostScript or PDF) through Ghostscript (<i>gs</i>) to convert it into a PBM image. This PBM image is then fed as input to <i>pbm2lwxl</i>, which performs the final conversion to the printer's proprietary LwXL format before sending it to the device. This modular approach allows the <b>min12xxw</b> project to focus solely on the printer-specific data conversion.


title: UNDERSTANDING GDI PRINTERS
content:
GDI (Graphical Device Interface) printers, sometimes referred to as 'WinPrinters,' fundamentally rely on the host computer's CPU and memory to render print jobs into a raster image. This image is then transmitted to the printer for direct output. This design choice makes the printer hardware itself less complex and cheaper to manufacture by offloading processing. However, it necessitates specific, often proprietary, drivers on the host system to perform the rendering and communication, making cross-platform support challenging without community-developed drivers like <b>min12xxw</b>. Traditional printers, in contrast, process jobs internally using PostScript or PCL.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>min12xxw</b> driver project emerged from the community's need to support Konica Minolta's GDI printers (like the 1200W/1250W/1300W/1350W models) on Linux. These printers, designed for cost-effectiveness, lacked native PostScript or PCL support, relying instead on proprietary Windows drivers to perform the rendering on the host PC. This open-source effort aimed to reverse-engineer the printer's communication protocol and its proprietary image format (LwXL) to enable Linux compatibility.<br><br>The driver, primarily implemented through the <i>pbm2lwxl</i> utility, became a crucial component for users who wanted to continue utilizing these otherwise inexpensive and reliable laser printers without being tied to the Windows operating system. Development likely peaked in the early-to-mid 2000s when these printer models were more prevalent. While official vendor support has long ceased for Linux, the <b>min12xxw</b> project continues to be maintained by the open-source community, ensuring ongoing compatibility with modern Linux distributions.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays comprehensive usage information and exits.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the <i>Minetest</i> engine version and exits.<br><br><b>--info</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs detailed engine information (e.g., capabilities, paths) and exits.<br><br><b>--verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose logging, providing more detailed output for debugging.<br><br><b>--config <path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative path to the main configuration file (e.g., <b>minetest.conf</b>).<br><br><b>--world <name></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts directly into the specified world by its name, bypassing the main menu.<br><br><b>--server</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Launches the game in server-only mode. Note: <b>minetestserver</b> is the dedicated command for server instances.<br><br><b>--address <ip></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the IP address of the multiplayer server to connect to.<br><br><b>--port <num></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the port number of the multiplayer server to connect to (default is 30000).<br><br><b>--name <playername></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the player name to use when joining a server or creating a new single-player world.<br><br><b>--password <password></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides the password for server authentication when logging in.<br><br><b>--random-map-seed <seed></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a specific seed for generating new worlds, ensuring consistent world generation.<br><br><b>--disable-sound</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables all sound output from the game.<br><br><b>--logfile <path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Redirects log output to the specified file path instead of the console.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>Minetest</i> is a free and open-source voxel game engine, highly inspired by <i>Minecraft</i>. It provides a lightweight and extensible platform for creating and playing block-based virtual worlds. Unlike commercial alternatives, <i>Minetest</i> emphasizes performance, flexibility, and community-driven development. It's often used as a foundation for various <i>sub-games</i>, which are essentially different rule-sets and content packs built on the engine.<br><br>Players can explore, build, and craft in infinite worlds, either locally or by connecting to multiplayer servers. Its modular design allows extensive customization through Lua-scripted mods and textures, making it a powerful tool for both casual gaming and educational purposes. The command <b>minetest</b> typically launches the game's graphical client, allowing users to select a world, join a server, or configure game settings.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Performance can vary significantly based on hardware, the selected <i>sub-game</i>, and the number/complexity of installed mods.<br><br>The default <b>minetest</b> command launches the graphical client; for dedicated server operation, the <b>minetestserver</b> command is generally used and highly recommended due to its optimized headless operation.<br><br>Mod compatibility can sometimes be an issue between different <i>Minetest</i> engine versions or specific <i>sub-games</i>.


title: SUB-GAMES AND MODS
content:
<i>Minetest</i> is structured around <i>sub-games</i> (complete game experiences with distinct rules and content) and <i>mods</i> (smaller additions that extend functionality). When you launch <i>Minetest</i>, you typically select a <i>sub-game</i> like 'Minetest Game'. Mods, written in Lua, allow for extensive customization, adding new blocks, items, or mechanics to any compatible <i>sub-game</i>.


title: CONFIGURATION FILES
content:
<i>Minetest</i> stores its primary configuration in <b>minetest.conf</b>, typically located in <b>~/.minetest/</b> within the user's home directory or sometimes globally in <b>/etc/minetest/</b> on Linux. This file allows users to fine-tune graphics, controls, network settings, and other engine parameters.


title: DATA DIRECTORIES
content:
Game data, including saved worlds, installed mods, and texture packs, are usually stored in the <b>~/.minetest/</b> directory within the user's home directory. This allows for easy management and backup of game content.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>Minetest</i> was initially developed by <i>Perttu Røykjær Diarra</i> (also known as 'celeron55') starting in <i>2010</i>. It began as a simple <i>Minecraft</i> clone written in <i>C++</i> and <i>Lua</i>. Over the years, it has evolved into a robust and extensible game engine maintained by a vibrant open-source community. Its focus shifted from just being a clone to providing a highly flexible platform for creating diverse voxel-based games, emphasizing extensibility and performance on a wide range of hardware. The <b>minetest</b> command has been the primary way to launch the game client since its early days.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the server version information and exits.<br><br><b><b>--config</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative path to the server configuration file (e.g., <b>minetest.conf</b>).<br><br><b><b>--world</b> <i>&lt;path&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the path to the world directory where world data is stored and loaded from.<br><br><b><b>--port</b> <i>&lt;port&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the network port on which the server will listen for incoming connections.<br><br><b><b>--gameid</b> <i>&lt;gameid&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the game ID (e.g., 'minetest_game') to load. This determines which game and mods are active.<br><br><b><b>--logfile</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Redirects all server output and log messages to the specified file.<br><br><b><b>--info</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays detailed server information, including active mods, game paths, and compile-time options, then exits.<br><br><b><b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables more verbose logging output, useful for debugging.<br><br><b><b>--migrate</b> <i>&lt;source_world&gt; &lt;dest_world&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Migrates world data from one location to another, typically used for world format conversions or relocation.<br><br><b><b>--update-world</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs an in-place update of the world database to the latest Minetest world format.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>minetestserver</i> is the standalone server component of the open-source voxel game Minetest. It allows multiple players to connect to a shared world, enabling cooperative building, exploration, and various game modes. Unlike the Minetest client, <i>minetestserver</i> runs without a graphical interface, making it suitable for deployment on headless servers or as a background process. It manages world data, player connections, and game logic, relying heavily on a configuration file (typically <b>minetest.conf</b>) for most settings, though some crucial parameters can be overridden or specified via command-line arguments. Its flexibility and low resource footprint make it popular for hosting private or public Minetest worlds. Users can extend its functionality through Lua-based mods and game modes.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>Security</b>: Exposing a <i>minetestserver</i> to the internet without proper security measures (e.g., strong admin passwords, up-to-date software) can pose risks.<br><b>Performance</b>: Server performance is highly dependent on hardware, player count, and complexity of loaded mods/games. Monitor CPU, RAM, and disk I/O.<br><b>Configuration</b>: Most server settings are controlled via <b>minetest.conf</b>. Incorrect configurations can lead to stability issues or unintended behavior.<br><b>World Corruption</b>: Improper shutdowns (e.g., power outages) can corrupt world data. Regular backups are strongly recommended.


title: CONFIGURATION FILE (MINETEST.CONF)
content:
The server primarily relies on a configuration file, typically named <b>minetest.conf</b>. This file contains the majority of adjustable server settings, including the server name, maximum players, PvP settings, administrator privileges, and detailed logging options. Command-line parameters often serve to override specific settings found within this file, or to specify its location.


title: RUNNING IN BACKGROUND
content:
For continuous operation, <i>minetestserver</i> is commonly run as a background process. This can be achieved using terminal multiplexers like <b>screen</b> or <b>tmux</b>, or by using <b>nohup</b>. For more robust and managed deployment on Linux systems, it is often configured as a <b>systemd</b> service, which ensures automatic startup on boot, proper process management, and simplified logging.


title: HISTORY
content:
Minetest's development began around 2010 by Perttu Ahola (celeron55). The <i>minetestserver</i> component was central from its early stages, facilitating multiplayer gameplay. Over the years, it has matured significantly, gaining features like a robust Lua modding API, improved world generation, and enhanced network performance. Its open-source nature has fostered a vibrant community, contributing to its continuous development and expansion with various game modes and content. The clear separation between client and server has always been a core design principle, making dedicated server hosting efficient and popular.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>FILE...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;One or more input files to interleave. If no files are specified, <b>mingle</b> reads from standard input.<br><br><b><b>-r</b>, <b>--random</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Interleaves lines randomly from all input sources. This option would ensure that lines from different files are mixed unpredictably rather than sequentially.<br><br><b><b>-s</b>, <b>--sequential</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Interleaves lines in a strict round-robin (sequential) fashion. This is the default behavior if no other interleaving method is specified.<br><br><b><b>-p</b>, <b>--prefix</b>=<i>TEXT</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds the specified <i>TEXT</i> as a prefix to each output line, along with an indicator (e.g., filename or stream number) to denote the original source of the line.<br><br><b><b>-L</b>, <b>--long-fill</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When input files have different numbers of lines, this option would cause <b>mingle</b> to continue interleaving with empty lines for shorter files until the longest file is exhausted. Without this, processing would stop when the shortest file runs out of lines.<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays help information and exits.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays version information and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
Please note: This description is for a <b>hypothetical</b> command. There is no standard, widely recognized Linux command named <b>mingle</b> in typical distributions.<br><br>The hypothetical <b>mingle</b> command would interleave lines from multiple specified input files or standard input. It would read one line from the first file, then one from the second, and so on, in a round-robin fashion until all lines from all files have been processed. This behavior is useful for combining related data streams, such as log files from parallel processes, to create a merged chronological view (assuming lines are roughly time-aligned). If input files have different numbers of lines, the command would typically stop when the shortest file is exhausted, or continue with empty lines for shorter files if specified.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Please note: This description is for a <b>hypothetical</b> <b>mingle</b> command. There is no standard, widely available Linux command with this name in typical distributions (e.g., Debian, Ubuntu, Fedora, CentOS). Functionality described here is conceptual, based on the likely interpretation of the name 'mingle' for a text processing utility.


title: HISTORY
content:
As a hypothetical command, <b>mingle</b> does not have a documented history of development or usage within the standard Linux ecosystem. Its concept may derive from similar needs addressed by combinations of existing tools or custom scripting.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-s</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts `minicom` in setup mode, allowing configuration of serial port settings, file transfer protocols, and more.<br><br><b><b>-o</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instructs `minicom` not to reset the modem initialization strings upon startup.<br><br><b><b>-m</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents `minicom` from initializing the modem, useful when connecting to non-modem serial devices.<br><br><b><b>-t</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables the use of lock files, which are normally used to prevent multiple programs from accessing the same serial port simultaneously. Use with caution.<br><br><b><b>-d</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables debug messages, providing more verbose output for troubleshooting.<br><br><b><b>-c</b> <i>&lt;directory&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative configuration directory for `minicom` profiles and settings.<br><br><b><i>&lt;profile_name&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Loads a specific named configuration profile, typically found in <I>~/.minicom.d/</I>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
`minicom` is a text-based terminal program for Linux and other Unix-like systems, primarily used for serial port communication. It provides an interface to interact with devices connected via a serial port, such as modems, embedded systems, routers, and switches. Its design is reminiscent of popular DOS communication programs like ProComm, featuring a menu-driven interface accessible via <I>Ctrl-A</I> followed by a letter (e.g., <I>Ctrl-A Z</I> for help).<br><br>Users can configure baud rates, data bits, stop bits, parity, and flow control. It supports various file transfer protocols, including Zmodem, Ymodem, and Xmodem, making it useful for flashing firmware or transferring files to connected devices. `minicom` is widely adopted by system administrators, developers, and hobbyists for debugging and managing serial devices due to its simplicity and effectiveness. It typically requires proper permissions to access serial devices (e.g., being part of the 'dialout' group).


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>Requires appropriate user permissions (e.g., being a member of the <I>dialout</I> group) to access serial devices. Without proper permissions, you may encounter "Permission denied" errors.<br><br>Using the `<b>-t</b>` (no lock) option can lead to conflicts if other applications or `minicom` instances attempt to access the same serial port simultaneously.<br><br>Initial setup via `<b>minicom -s</b>` is often necessary to configure the correct serial port, baud rate, and other communication parameters for your specific device.</i>


title: KEY BINDINGS
content:
`minicom` is heavily reliant on key combinations prefixed by <I>Ctrl-A</I>. For instance, <I>Ctrl-A Z</I> brings up the help menu, <I>Ctrl-A X</I> exits the program, and <I>Ctrl-A S</I> initiates sending a file. Understanding these key bindings is crucial for effective interaction with the program.


title: CONFIGURATION AND PROFILES
content:
The default configuration is stored in <I>~/.minirc.dfl</I>. Users can create multiple profiles for different devices or settings, which are typically saved in the <I>~/.minicom.d/</I> directory. These profiles can then be loaded using the command-line argument `<i>&lt;profile_name&gt;</i>`.


title: HISTORY
content:
`minicom` originated in the early 1990s as a free software alternative to commercial DOS-based communication programs like ProComm. It was designed to provide similar functionality for Linux and Unix-like operating systems, leveraging their capabilities for serial port interaction. Its enduring popularity stems from its stability, simplicity, and effectiveness in a wide range of serial communication tasks, particularly in embedded systems development and network device management.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--pid=&lt;<i>PID</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the Process ID (PID) of the target process from which the minidump will be created.<br><br><b>--output=&lt;<i>PATH</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the full path and filename for the generated minidump file.<br><br><b>--annotation=&lt;<i>KEY</i>&gt;=&lt;<i>VALUE</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds a custom annotation to the minidump file. This can be used to store arbitrary key-value pairs, providing additional context relevant to the dump (e.g., version info, user ID).<br><br><b>--exception-info=&lt;<i>KEY</i>&gt;=&lt;<i>VALUE</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides information about an exception if the dump is being taken in response to a crash. Used internally or for specific debugging scenarios.<br><br><b>--user-stream-data=&lt;<i>KEY</i>&gt;=&lt;<i>VALUE</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Includes custom user-defined stream data in the minidump. Similar to annotations but typically for larger binary blobs or structured data.<br><br><b>--exception-code=&lt;<i>CODE</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the exception code (e.g., signal number for Linux) that caused the crash, if applicable.<br><br><b>--exception-address=&lt;<i>ADDRESS</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Indicates the memory address where the exception occurred, if applicable.<br><br><b>--thread-id=&lt;<i>ID</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the ID of the thread that encountered the exception or is considered the 'crashing' thread.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>minidumper</b> command is a utility designed to capture a condensed snapshot of a running process's memory, threads, and modules, saving it as a <i>minidump</i> file. This file format, often associated with Windows crash reporting, is cross-platform compatible and widely used for post-mortem debugging of application crashes or hangs.<br><br>Developed as part of projects like Google's Breakpad and its successor Crashpad, <b>minidumper</b> enables developers to collect crucial debugging information from client applications without requiring a full memory dump, which can be prohibitively large. It attaches to a target process using Linux's <i>ptrace</i> system call, extracts relevant state, and writes it to the specified output file. This allows for offline analysis of application failures, providing stack traces, module information, and register states, which are vital for identifying the root cause of issues in deployed software.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The <b>minidumper</b> command typically requires elevated privileges (e.g., <i>root</i> access or the <i>CAP_SYS_PTRACE</i> capability) to attach to and inspect other processes. It is not a standard utility bundled with all Linux distributions and is usually found as part of applications that integrate Google's Breakpad or Crashpad for crash reporting. The target process may experience a brief pause or performance degradation while the minidump is being generated. Analyzing minidumps requires specialized tools like <i>minidump_stackwalk</i> (from Breakpad) or a debugger configured to understand the minidump format.


title: MINIDUMP ANALYSIS
content:
Minidumps generated by <b>minidumper</b> are not human-readable directly. They are binary files that require specific tools for analysis. On Linux, the <I>minidump_stackwalk</I> utility (part of Breakpad) is commonly used to extract stack traces from the minidump, providing insights into the execution flow at the time the dump was taken. For more in-depth analysis, debuggers like <I>GDB</I> can be configured with extensions to load and inspect minidumps, allowing for examination of threads, modules, and memory regions.


title: PERMISSIONS AND DEPENDENCIES
content:
To successfully create a minidump, <b>minidumper</b> relies on the Linux <i>ptrace</i> system call, which allows one process to control another. This typically means the user running <b>minidumper</b> must have the necessary permissions, such as being <i>root</i>, or having the <i>CAP_SYS_PTRACE</i> capability. Additionally, the target process must be debuggable; for instance, it should not be a kernel thread or a process that has explicitly disallowed ptrace. The command itself is not a standard part of core Linux utilities and must be installed via a package manager or compiled from source, usually as a dependency of a larger application framework.


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept behind <b>minidumper</b> originated with Google's <I>Breakpad</I> project, an open-source cross-platform crash reporting library primarily developed for the Google Chrome browser. Breakpad aimed to provide robust crash reporting capabilities, especially for C++ applications. <b>minidumper</b> is a component or a similar utility used within or alongside Breakpad/Crashpad to directly capture the minidump.<br><br>Breakpad was later succeeded by <I>Crashpad</I>, another open-source crash-reporting system that improved upon Breakpad's design, offering better support for asynchronous crash handling and security. While the specific executable name might vary or be internal to a larger crash handler, the function of dumping process state into a minidump file is central to both projects' methodologies, making this command-line utility a direct descendant of these efforts to enable effective post-mortem debugging across operating systems.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>miniserve</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>] [<i>PATH</i>]<br><br><i>PATH</i> defaults to the current working directory if not specified.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>--auth &lt;USER:PASS&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables HTTP Basic Authentication. Can be specified multiple times for different user credentials.<br><br><b><i>--dav</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables Web Distributed Authoring and Versioning (WebDAV), allowing clients to create, modify, and delete files on the server.<br><br><b><i>--fallback &lt;FILE&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Serves a specified file (e.g., <i>index.html</i>) when a requested path is not found. Useful for Single Page Applications (SPAs).<br><br><b><i>--header &lt;NAME:VALUE&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds a custom HTTP header to all responses. Can be used multiple times.<br><br><b><i>--interface &lt;ADDR&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the network interface or IP address to bind to. Default: <i>0.0.0.0</i> (all interfaces).<br><br><b><i>--index &lt;FILE&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the default file to serve when a directory is requested (e.g., <i>index.html</i>). Default: <i>index.html</i>.<br><br><b><i>--live-reload</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables live reloading for HTML files. When source files change, connected browsers automatically refresh. Ideal for web development.<br><br><b><i>--port &lt;PORT&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the port number to listen on. Default: <i>8080</i>.<br><br><b><i>--qrcode</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a QR code in the terminal for the server's address, making it easy to access from mobile devices.<br><br><b><i>--no-symlinks</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables following symbolic links that point outside the served directory for security reasons.<br><br><b><i>--spa</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables Single Page Application (SPA) mode. Any path not found will serve the <i>index.html</i> file, similar to <i>--fallback index.html</i>.<br><br><b><i>--tls-cert &lt;FILE&gt;</i>, <i>--tls-key &lt;FILE&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables HTTPS/TLS encryption by providing paths to a certificate file and its corresponding private key file.<br><br><b><i>--upload-files</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allows clients to upload files to the served directory via a web interface.<br><br><b><i>--raw-ip</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows raw IP addresses in log output instead of attempting to resolve hostnames.<br><br><b><i>--verbose</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose logging output, providing more detailed information about server activity.<br><br><b><i>-v</i>, <i>--version</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the installed <i>miniserve</i> version information and exits.<br><br><b><i>-h</i>, <i>--help</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints a detailed help message about <i>miniserve</i> usage and available options, then exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
miniserve is a versatile, cross-platform command-line utility designed for quickly serving files and directories over HTTP. Written in Rust, it provides a lightweight and self-contained web server ideal for development, local file sharing, or hosting static websites. Its primary goal is to offer a simple, "just-works" solution for common file serving needs without the overhead of traditional web servers. It boasts a variety of features including optional basic HTTP authentication, file upload capabilities, WebDAV support for remote file management, QR code display for easy mobile access, and live reloading for web development workflows. Its minimal configuration and single-binary distribution make it an excellent choice for rapid prototyping or ad-hoc sharing scenarios where a full-fledged web server might be overkill.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>Security</b>: While useful for local development and trusted networks, exposing <i>miniserve</i> directly to the public internet without proper authentication and TLS/HTTPS can pose significant security risks, especially when features like file upload or WebDAV are enabled.<br><br><b>Resource Usage</b>: Designed for simplicity and quick deployment, <i>miniserve</i> might not scale as efficiently as full-fledged web servers (like Nginx or Apache) for very high traffic, complex routing, or advanced server-side processing needs.<br><br><b>Authentication Limitations</b>: HTTP Basic Authentication, when used without TLS/HTTPS encryption, transmits credentials in plain text and is therefore not secure over untrusted networks. Always use <i>--tls-cert</i> and <i>--tls-key</i> when authentication is required over a network.


title: INSTALLATION
content:
<i>miniserve</i> can typically be installed via common package managers (e.g., <i>apt install miniserve</i> on Debian/Ubuntu, <i>brew install miniserve</i> on macOS) or directly through Rust's package manager, <i>cargo</i> (<i>cargo install miniserve</i>). Being compiled into a single static binary, it's also very easy to download a pre-built executable and run it directly.


title: COMMON USE CASES
content:
<b>Quick File Sharing</b>: Easily share files or entire directories between devices on a local network or with colleagues.<br><br><b>Web Development Server</b>: Rapidly serve static HTML/CSS/JS applications during development, often combined with <i>--live-reload</i> for an improved workflow.<br><br><b>Temporary Download/Upload Point</b>: Create an ad-hoc server to facilitate quick transfers, especially useful with <i>--upload-files</i>.<br><br><b>Single Page Application Hosting</b>: Serve front-end JavaScript applications using <i>--spa</i> or <i>--fallback</i> to handle client-side routing.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>miniserve</i> is a modern utility, developed in Rust, which emphasizes performance, memory safety, and cross-platform compatibility. It emerged as a simpler, more robust alternative to older scripting-based one-liner servers (like Python's <i>http.server</i>) for quickly serving files. Its design philosophy prioritizes ease of use and minimal configuration, aiming to provide essential file serving capabilities in a single, portable executable without the overhead and complexity of traditional web servers.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>minisign</b> -G [-p <I>password_file</I>] [-s <I>seed_file</I>] [-x]<br><b>minisign</b> -S -s <I>secret_key_file</I> [-p <I>password_file</I>] [-l] -m <I>file_to_sign</I><br><b>minisign</b> -V {-P <I>public_key_file</I> | -p <I>public_key_id</I>} -m <I>file_to_verify</I> [-x]<br><b>minisign</b> -W


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-G</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Generate a new <b>minisign</b> key pair (public and secret keys).<br><br><b>-S</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sign the specified input file <I>file_to_sign</I>.<br><br><b>-V</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Verify the signature of the specified input file <I>file_to_verify</I>.<br><br><b>-P <I>public_key_file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the public key file to use for verification. This option is mutually exclusive with -p <I>public_key_id</I>.<br><br><b>-p <I>password_file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide the password for the secret key from a file, or for public key lookup using a public key ID.<br><br><b>-p <I>public_key_id</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify a public key ID for verification. <b>minisign</b> will look for the corresponding public key in its key directory (e.g., /etc/minisign/minisign.pub). This option is mutually exclusive with -P <I>public_key_file</I>.<br><br><b>-s <I>secret_key_file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the path to the secret (private) key file required for signing operations.<br><br><b>-m <I>file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the file to be signed or verified.<br><br><b>-l</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Sign only) Create a detached signature file (e.g., <I>filename</I>.minisig) instead of appending it to the original file.<br><br><b>-x</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allow external prehashes for verification. This option is typically used for compatibility with signatures created by other tools or when <b>minisign</b> does not directly support the hash function used.<br><br><b>-W</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Generate a random password, suitable for use when generating a new key pair.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>minisign</b> is a simple, lightweight, and secure command-line tool for cryptographically signing files and verifying their integrity. It uses a public-key cryptography system, relying on a private key to generate a digital signature for a file, and a corresponding public key to verify that signature. This process ensures both the authenticity of the file's origin and that its contents have not been altered since it was signed. Designed with a focus on simplicity, robustness, and a minimal attack surface, <b>minisign</b> is often preferred for tasks such as secure software distribution, package integrity checks, and ensuring the trustworthiness of data exchanged over untrusted channels, offering a more streamlined alternative to more complex tools like GnuPG for specific use cases. It typically generates a <I>.minisig</I> file containing the signature.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>minisign</b>'s security relies heavily on the secrecy of the private key and the authenticated distribution of public keys. <br>While designed for simplicity, it's not a general-purpose encryption tool like GnuPG. <br>It primarily focuses on file integrity and authenticity, not confidentiality. <br>The <I>minisign.pub</I> directory for public key lookup is system-wide and requires careful management to prevent spoofing.


title: KEY MANAGEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION
content:
The public key (<I>minisign.pub</I>) needs to be securely distributed to those who will verify signatures. For automated systems, public keys are often placed in a designated system-wide directory, typically <I>/etc/minisign/minisign.pub</I>, where <b>minisign</b> can automatically look them up by ID. For general users, providing the public key file via -P is a common practice.


title: SIGNATURE FILE FORMAT
content:
When signing a file without the -l (detached) option, <b>minisign</b> appends the signature directly to the original file. With -l, it creates a separate file named <I>original_filename</I>.minisig. This signature file contains the public key identifier, a timestamp, and the actual cryptographic signature.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>minisign</b> was developed by Frank Denis as a lightweight, secure, and auditable tool for digital signatures. Its design emphasizes simplicity and a minimal codebase, aiming to avoid the complexity and potential attack surface associated with larger cryptographic suites like GnuPG, particularly for tasks focused purely on software distribution and integrity verification.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<i><b>mintstick-cli</b></i> { <b>--format</b> <i>DEVICE</i> | <b>--write</b> <i>IMAGE_FILE DEVICE</i> } [<i>OPTIONS</i>]<br><i><b>mintstick</b></i> (launches GUI without arguments)


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the program's version number and exits.<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows a help message with command-line options and exits.<br><br><b><b>-i</b> <i>IMAGE_FILE</i>, <b>--iso</b> <i>IMAGE_FILE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to the ISO image file to be written to the USB device. This option is mandatory when using <b>--write</b>.<br><br><b><b>-d</b> <i>DEVICE</i>, <b>--device</b> <i>DEVICE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to the target USB device (e.g., <i>/dev/sdb</i>, <i>/dev/sdc</i>). This option is mandatory for both <b>--format</b> and <b>--write</b> operations. <b><i>Extreme caution is advised to ensure the correct device is selected.</i></b><br><br><b><b>-w</b>, <b>--write</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instructs <i><b>mintstick-cli</b></i> to write the specified ISO image (via <b>--iso</b>) to the target USB device (via <b>--device</b>). This will erase all existing data on the device.<br><br><b><b>-f</b>, <b>--format</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instructs <i><b>mintstick-cli</b></i> to format the specified USB device (via <b>--device</b>). This will erase all existing data on the device.<br><br><b><b>-s</b> <i>SIZE</i>, <b>--size</b> <i>SIZE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Used with <b>--format</b> to specify the size of the partition to create, in gigabytes (e.g., <i>8GB</i>). If omitted, the entire device will be formatted.<br><br><b><b>-l</b> <i>LABEL</i>, <b>--label</b> <i>LABEL</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Used with <b>--format</b> to set the volume label for the new partition.<br><br><b><b>-t</b> <i>FILESYSTEM</i>, <b>--filesystem</b> <i>FILESYSTEM</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Used with <b>--format</b> to specify the filesystem type (e.g., <i>fat32</i>, <i>ext4</i>). The default is <i>fat32</i> if not specified.<br><br><b><b>-y</b>, <b>--yes</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Assumes 'yes' to all prompts, allowing non-interactive operation. Use with extreme caution as it bypasses critical confirmation messages.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, providing more detailed information about the operation progress.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i><b>mintstick</b></i> is a versatile utility from the Linux Mint project, designed to simplify the management of USB drives. It provides both a graphical user interface (GUI) and a command-line interface (CLI) to perform two primary functions: creating bootable USB drives from ISO images and formatting USB drives.<br><br>The command-line tool, specifically `mintstick-cli`, offers a powerful way to automate or script these operations. It abstracts the complexities of underlying disk utilities like `dd`, `mkfs`, and `parted`, providing a safer and more user-friendly experience for common USB manipulation tasks.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i><b>Data Loss Warning</b></i>: Both writing an ISO and formatting a device will irrevocably erase all data on the target USB drive. Always double-check the specified device path (e.g., <i>/dev/sdb</i>) before executing the command to prevent accidental data loss on system drives or other important storage devices.<br><br><i><b>Root Privileges</b></i>: <i><b>mintstick-cli</b></i> requires root privileges to operate on disk devices. It must be run using <i>sudo</i> or as the root user.<br><br><i><b>Device Unmounting</b></i>: While <i><b>mintstick-cli</b></i> attempts to unmount the device, ensure it is not in use or mounted before starting operations to prevent errors.


title: GUI LAUNCHER
content:
When invoked without any command-line arguments (i.e., just <i><b>mintstick</b></i>), the application typically launches its graphical user interface (GUI). This provides an intuitive visual way to perform the same USB image writing and formatting tasks, complete with progress bars and interactive device selection.


title: PURPOSE AND SIMPLICITY
content:
<i><b>mintstick</b></i>'s primary purpose is to abstract the complexity of low-level disk operations. While tools like <i><b>dd</b></i> are powerful, they are prone to critical errors if used incorrectly. <i><b>mintstick</b></i> provides a safer and more guided approach, especially for users who are less familiar with disk partitioning and filesystem creation.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i><b>mintstick</b></i> is an application developed specifically for the Linux Mint operating system. It was created to provide a user-friendly and robust solution for common USB drive tasks, moving beyond the more complex and potentially dangerous native Linux command-line tools for everyday users. Its development is ongoing within the Linux Mint project, integrating closely with the desktop environment and offering a simplified experience for creating bootable media for Linux Mint installations and other operating systems.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>--help</b>, <b>-h</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays help information for <i>mise</i> or a specific subcommand.<br><br><b><b>--version</b>, <b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the current <i>mise</i> version.<br><br><b><b>--json</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs command results in JSON format where applicable, useful for scripting.<br><br><b><b>--raw</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs raw, unformatted data, typically used for scripting or direct consumption without additional formatting.<br><br><b><b>--quiet</b>, <b>-q</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses non-essential output, showing only critical information or errors.<br><br><b><b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, providing more detailed information for debugging or understanding command execution.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mise</i> (formerly <i>rtx</i>) is a powerful, modern, and fast polyglot tool version manager designed to streamline the management of various programming language runtimes, development tools, and environment variables. Written in Rust for exceptional performance, <i>mise</i> serves as an efficient alternative or successor to tools like <i>asdf</i>, offering a unified interface for installing, switching, and managing versions of popular tools such as Node.js, Python, Ruby, Go, Rust, and many others.<br><br>It integrates seamlessly with common shells (Bash, Zsh, Fish) and supports <i>direnv</i>, allowing for automatic environment setup based on the current directory. <i>mise</i> maintains compatibility with <i>asdf</i>'s <code>.tool-versions</code> file format, which enables developers to define project-specific tool versions, ensuring consistency across development teams and CI/CD pipelines. Its focus on speed, extensibility through a plugin system, and a user-friendly experience makes <i>mise</i> an increasingly popular choice for developers seeking to simplify their development environment setup.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Requires shell integration (e.g., via <code>eval "$(mise activate)"</code>) to properly manage tool versions by modifying the shell's PATH and environment variables.<br><br>Can conflict with other active version managers (like <i>asdf</i>, <i>nvm</i>, <i>pyenv</i>) if not configured to work alongside or replace them.<br><br>Initial setup and tool installations require an active internet connection and consume disk space for downloaded tool versions and plugins.


title: SHELL INTEGRATION
content:
For <i>mise</i> to function correctly and seamlessly manage tool versions, it requires explicit shell integration. This is typically achieved by adding a command like <code>eval "$(mise activate)"</code> (or <code>mise activate &lt;SHELL&gt;</code> for specific shells) to your shell's configuration file (e.g., <code>.bashrc</code>, <code>.zshrc</code>, <code>config.fish</code>). This command dynamically modifies your shell's <code>PATH</code> environment variable and sets up shims, allowing <i>mise</i> to intercept commands and execute the correct tool versions based on your project or global settings.


title: <CODE>.TOOL-VERSIONS</CODE> COMPATIBILITY
content:
A core feature of <i>mise</i> is its full compatibility with the <code>.tool-versions</code> file format, originally popularized by <i>asdf</i>. These files, typically placed in project root directories, allow developers to specify exact versions of various tools required for a particular project (e.g., <code>nodejs 18.17.1</code>, <code>python 3.10.12</code>). When <i>mise</i> detects a <code>.tool-versions</code> file in the current directory or any parent directory, it automatically switches to and uses the specified tool versions, guaranteeing consistent development environments across different projects and team members.


title: EXTENSIBILITY THROUGH PLUGINS
content:
<i>mise</i>'s versatility is significantly enhanced by its robust plugin system. This architecture allows users to extend <i>mise</i>'s capabilities to manage virtually any command-line tool or runtime not natively supported. Many existing <i>asdf</i> plugins are compatible with <i>mise</i>, providing a vast ecosystem of tools that can be installed and managed. Developers can also create custom plugins to support internal tools or specific project requirements, making <i>mise</i> a highly adaptable solution for diverse development workflows.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mise</i> was originally developed by Jeff Dickey under the name <i>rtx</i> (Rust ToolX). It was conceived as a high-performance, Rust-based alternative to existing version managers like <i>asdf</i>, aiming to address performance bottlenecks and introduce new features while maintaining compatibility with the widely adopted <code>.tool-versions</code> file format. The project gained significant traction for its speed and modern approach.<br><br>In a strategic move to broaden its appeal and reflect its expanded capabilities beyond just 'tool X' management, <i>rtx</i> was rebranded to <i>mise</i>. This rebranding signifies its evolution into a more comprehensive and distinct solution for managing diverse development environments, emphasizing its focus on efficiency, extensibility, and a streamlined developer experience.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<i>mispipe</i> <i>&lt;command1&gt; [command1_arguments...]</i> <i>&lt;command2&gt; [command2_arguments...]</i>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mispipe</i> is a specialized utility designed to create a unique <i>bidirectional</i> or <i>circular</i> piping mechanism between two commands. Unlike standard Unix pipes (<b>|</b>) which connect the standard output of one command to the standard input of another in a linear fashion, <i>mispipe</i> enables a feedback loop. It typically works by taking the standard output of the first command and feeding it as standard input to the second command, and simultaneously, taking the standard output of the second command and feeding it back as standard input to the first command.<br><br>This allows for complex interactions where both commands can process data from each other in a continuous loop. It's particularly useful for scenarios where a command's output needs to influence its own subsequent input, or when two processes need to exchange data in a mutually dependent way. Due to its non-standard nature, <i>mispipe</i> is often implemented as a custom shell script using constructs like named pipes (<b>mkfifo</b>), temporary files, or process substitution, rather than being a universally installed binary. Its exact behavior and options can vary depending on its specific implementation.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>Non-Standard Utility:</b> <i>mispipe</i> is not a standard, universally installed Linux utility. It is often a custom shell script or a specialized tool created for specific environments. Therefore, its availability, exact syntax, behavior, and underlying implementation (e.g., using named pipes, temporary files, or process substitution) can vary significantly. Users should be aware that <i>mispipe</i> may not be present on all systems or may behave differently than expected based on its local implementation.<br><br><b>Resource Consumption:</b> Circular piping can lead to complex interactions and potential resource consumption issues (e.g., CPU, memory, disk I/O for temporary files) if the commands involved do not properly handle input/output termination or produce an excessive amount of data in a continuous loop. Careful design of the piped commands is essential to prevent infinite loops or resource exhaustion.


title: IMPLEMENTATION METHODS
content:
Because <i>mispipe</i> is not a standard command, it's typically implemented using various shell scripting techniques. Common methods include:<br> <b><i>Named Pipes (mkfifo)</i></b>: Creating two named pipes, one for each direction of the data flow, and running the commands in the background, redirecting their I/O through these pipes.<br> <b><i>Temporary Files</i></b>: Less efficient but simpler for some scenarios, where output is written to a temporary file, and that file is then read as input. This requires careful management of file deletion.<br> <b><i>Process Substitution (&lt;()&gt;)</i></b>: In modern shells like Bash, process substitution can sometimes be used to create pseudo-files that represent the output/input of another process, enabling more complex data flow orchestration without explicit named pipes.


title: HISTORY
content:
As <i>mispipe</i> is not a standard Unix command but rather a conceptual utility or a common term for a specific type of shell scripting pattern, it does not have a formal development history or a specific versioning roadmap like standard GNU utilities. Its origins lie in the need to solve complex inter-process communication problems where linear pipes are insufficient. Implementations have evolved with shell capabilities, leveraging features like named pipes (<b>mkfifo</b>) from the early days of Unix and later process substitution (<<b>()</b>>) in modern shells (like Bash and Zsh) to provide more elegant and efficient solutions for circular data flow.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mitmdump</b> [<i>options</i>] [<i>filters</i>]<br><i>Examples:</i><br><b>mitmdump</b> <i>-p 8080</i> <i>-s my_script.py</i><br><b>mitmdump</b> <i>--mode transparent</i> <i>"~h example.com"</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-p</b> <i><port></i>, <b>--port</b> <i><port></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The port on which the proxy will listen for incoming connections. Default is 8080.<br><br><b><b>-q</b>, <b>--quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress most output to stdout, showing only essential errors or script prints.<br><br><b><b>-s</b> <i><file></i>, <b>--scripts</b> <i><file></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Load a Python script at startup. Multiple scripts can be loaded by specifying the option multiple times or using a comma-separated list.<br><br><b><b>-r</b> <i><file></i>, <b>--read-file</b> <i><file></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Read flows from a specified file instead of capturing live traffic. Useful for analysis or replaying past sessions.<br><br><b><b>-w</b> <i><file></i>, <b>--write-file</b> <i><file></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Write all captured flows to the specified file. This allows for later inspection or replay using <i>mitmproxy</i>, <i>mitmweb</i>, or <i>mitmdump</i>.<br><br><b><b>--set</b> <i><option></i>=<i><value></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set a configuration option directly. E.g., <i>--set connection_timeout=60</i>.<br><br><b><b>--mode</b> <i><mode></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the proxy mode: <i>regular</i> (default), <i>transparent</i>, <i>reverse:<URL></i>, or <i>socks5</i>.<br><br><b><b>--ssl-insecure</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not verify upstream SSL/TLS certificates. Use with caution as it bypasses security checks.<br><br><b><b>--listen-host</b> <i><host></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The host interface for the proxy to listen on. Default is 127.0.0.1 (localhost).<br><br><b><b>--confdir</b> <i><path></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify a directory where <i>mitmproxy</i> stores certificates and other configuration files.<br><br><b><i><filter></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Positional arguments can be used as filters to only display or process flows matching specific criteria (e.g., <i>~h example.com</i> for host matching).<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mitmdump</i> is the command-line interface of the <i>mitmproxy</i> suite, a powerful open-source tool for interactive <br>inspection, modification, and replay of HTTP/S traffic. Unlike its interactive console counterpart <br><i>mitmproxy</i> or the web-based <br><i>mitmweb</i>, <br><i>mitmdump</i> is designed for non-interactive use, making it ideal for scripting, automation, and continuous integration environments. It allows developers and security professionals to intercept and analyze network requests and responses, injecting custom Python scripts to modify headers, bodies, or even inject new flows. This functionality is crucial for security testing, API debugging, performance analysis, and bypassing specific network restrictions. <br><i>mitmdump</i> supports SSL/TLS interception by dynamically generating certificates, providing deep visibility into encrypted traffic, provided its CA certificate is trusted by the client.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>SSL/TLS Interception Requires Trust:</i> For <i>mitmdump</i> to successfully intercept HTTPS traffic, its generated CA certificate must be trusted by the client's operating system or application. Failure to do so will result in certificate errors.<br><i>Performance Overhead:</i> Intercepting and processing all network traffic can introduce a performance overhead, especially for high-volume environments or large data transfers.<br><i>Ethical Use:</i> As a man-in-the-middle tool, <i>mitmdump</i> can be used for malicious purposes. Always ensure you have appropriate authorization before intercepting network traffic.


title: <B>PYTHON SCRIPTING CAPABILITIES</B>
content:
One of <i>mitmdump</i>'s most powerful features is its extensive Python API, allowing users to write custom scripts <br>that interact with the intercepted traffic. Scripts can modify requests, responses, add <br>or remove headers, inject content, or even trigger external actions based on traffic <br>patterns. This enables highly flexible and automated testing, data extraction, and <br>security analysis workflows.


title: <B>CERTIFICATE MANAGEMENT</B>
content:
To intercept HTTPS traffic, <i>mitmdump</i> acts as an SSL/TLS man-in-the-middle. It generates dynamic <br>certificates for each intercepted domain. For clients to trust these certificates, the <br><i>mitmproxy</i> CA certificate must be installed and trusted on the client machine. This is a <br>critical step for successful HTTPS interception and debugging.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mitmdump</i> is an integral part of the broader <i>mitmproxy</i> project, which originated as an open-source initiative <br>developed in Python. Initially conceived as a command-line utility for debugging and testing, it has <br>steadily evolved, gaining advanced features like HTTP/2 support, WebSockets, and a robust <br>scripting API. Its design emphasizes automation and integration, making it a cornerstone for <br>developers and security researchers needing non-interactive traffic manipulation capabilities <br>within scripts or automated workflows. The project continues to be actively maintained and <br>developed by a community of contributors.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-p</b> <i><port></i>, <b>--listen-port</b> <i><port></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The port <b>mitmproxy</b> listens on for incoming connections.<br><br><b><b>-m</b> <i><mode></i>, <b>--mode</b> <i><mode></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the proxy mode (e.g., <i>regular</i>, <i>transparent</i>, <i>reverse:&lt;spec&gt;</i>, <i>socks5</i>).<br><br><b><b>-s</b> <i><script.py></i>, <b>--script</b> <i><script.py></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Path to a Python script to execute, allowing for custom traffic manipulation.<br><br><b><b>--set</b> <i><option=value></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets a configuration option (e.g., <i>console_default_flow_display_filter='~m post'</i>).<br><br><b><b>--ssl-insecure</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables upstream server certificate verification. Useful for testing against self-signed or invalid certificates.<br><br><b><b>--certs</b> <i><path></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Add an SSL certificate to use for interception. Can be specified multiple times.<br><br><b><b>--ignore-hosts</b> <i><regex></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A regular expression that matches hostnames which should not be MITM'd.<br><br><b><b>--allow-hosts</b> <i><regex></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A regular expression that matches hostnames which should be MITM'd. If both <b>ignore-hosts</b> and <b>allow-hosts</b> are specified, <b>ignore-hosts</b> takes precedence.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mitmproxy</b> is a powerful open-source interactive console tool that functions as an SSL/TLS-capable intercepting proxy. It allows developers, security researchers, and QA engineers to inspect, modify, and replay HTTP/1, HTTP/2, WebSockets, and other TCP connections.<br><br>It's often used for debugging web applications, security testing, and API exploration. Beyond its interactive console interface, <b>mitmproxy</b> also includes <b>mitmdump</b> for programmatic traffic manipulation via Python scripts and <b>mitmweb</b> for a web-based interface. Its core functionality involves acting as a man-in-the-middle, intercepting traffic, decrypting SSL/TLS, and then presenting it for analysis or modification before forwarding it. It supports various proxy modes, including transparent and regular HTTP proxy.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Requires trust of <b>mitmproxy</b>'s root CA certificate on the client device to decrypt HTTPS/TLS traffic.<br>Can be used for malicious purposes if installed unknowingly on a system.<br>Performance can be affected by high traffic volume due to decryption and inspection overhead.<br>Some applications employ SSL pinning, which can bypass <b>mitmproxy</b>'s interception.


title: CERTIFICATE MANAGEMENT
content:
<b>mitmproxy</b> automatically generates and manages its own SSL/TLS certificates. For HTTPS interception, the client device needs to trust <b>mitmproxy</b>'s root CA certificate, which can be easily installed by browsing to <i>mitm.it</i> through the proxy.


title: SCRIPTING WITH PYTHON
content:
One of <b>mitmproxy</b>'s most powerful features is its extensibility via Python scripts. Users can write custom scripts to programmatically modify requests and responses, inject data, log specific events, or automate complex testing scenarios. This is typically done via <b>mitmdump</b> or directly from <b>mitmproxy</b> using the <b>-s</b> option.


title: PROXY MODES
content:
<b>mitmproxy</b> supports various modes:<br><i>Regular Proxy</i>: The client explicitly configures the proxy.<br><i>Transparent Proxy</i>: Traffic is redirected to <b>mitmproxy</b> without client configuration, often via firewall rules.<br><i>Reverse Proxy</i>: <b>mitmproxy</b> acts as a front-end to a specific upstream server.<br><i>SOCKS5 Proxy</i>: Supports SOCKS5 proxy protocol.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mitmproxy</b> was first released in 2010. It quickly gained popularity as an open-source alternative to commercial proxy tools like Burp Suite, particularly for its scriptability and command-line interface. Its development has been community-driven, continuously adding support for newer protocols (like HTTP/2 and WebSockets) and features, evolving from a simple proxy into a comprehensive network debugging and testing suite. It is written in Python.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mitmweb</b> [<I>options</I>] [<I>filter_expression</I>]<br><br>Examples:<br><b>mitmweb</b> -p 8080 --mode transparent<br><b>mitmweb</b> --web-port 8081 --set stream_large_bodies=true<br><b>mitmweb</b> "~q google.com"


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--host <host></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Host address for the proxy listener to bind to (e.g., 0.0.0.0 for all interfaces).<br><br><b>--port <port></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Port for the proxy listener. Default is 8080.<br><br><b>--mode <mode></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Proxy operation mode: <I>regular</I>, <I>transparent</I>, <I>reverse:spec</I>, or <I>socks5</I>.<br><br><b>--web-host <host></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Host address for the <i>mitmweb</i> UI to bind to. Default is 127.0.0.1.<br><br><b>--web-port <port></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Port for the <i>mitmweb</i> UI. Default is 8081.<br><br><b>--set <option=value></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set a specific <i>mitmproxy</i> option (e.g., <I>stream_large_bodies=true</I>).<br><br><b>--confdir <path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Directory for configuration files, including SSL certificates.<br><br><b>--ssl-insecure</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disable verification of upstream server SSL certificates.<br><br><b>--ignore-hosts <regex></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Traffic to hosts matching the regex bypasses the proxy.<br><br><b>--allow-hosts <regex></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Only traffic to hosts matching the regex is proxied.<br><br><b>--anticache</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Strip Cache-Control and If-Modified-Since headers from requests.<br><br><b>--upstream-proxy <proxy_spec></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Chain to another upstream proxy (e.g., <I>http://localhost:8080</I>).<br><br><b>--filter <expression></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Apply an initial filter expression to the displayed flows in the UI.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mitmweb</i> serves as the web-based graphical user interface (GUI) for the powerful <i>mitmproxy</i> tool. <i>mitmproxy</i> itself is an interactive, SSL/TLS-capable intercepting HTTP proxy, primarily used for debugging, testing, and security assessments of network applications. <i>mitmweb</i> extends this functionality by providing a convenient browser-accessible interface that allows users to inspect, filter, modify, replay, and save HTTP/HTTPS traffic.<br><br>It's particularly useful for those who prefer a visual workflow over a command-line interface, enabling easier navigation through complex network flows, quick editing of requests/responses, and real-time monitoring of communication. Built on the same core as <i>mitmproxy</i> and <i>mitmdump</i>, <i>mitmweb</i> inherits all their robust features, including support for various proxy modes (regular, transparent, reverse, SOCKS5) and powerful Python scripting for automating tasks and advanced traffic manipulation. It simplifies the process of understanding and interacting with network protocols, making it an invaluable tool for developers, QA engineers, and security researchers.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li><b>Root/Sudo Privileges</b>: Running <i>mitmweb</i> in transparent mode on privileged ports (below 1024) typically requires root or sudo privileges.</li><li><b>Certificate Trust</b>: For HTTPS interception, the <i>mitmproxy</i> CA certificate must be installed and trusted by the client device or browser to avoid security warnings.</li><li><b>Performance</b>: While powerful for debugging and development, <i>mitmweb</i> is not designed for high-volume production proxying or load-testing.</li><li><b>Python Dependency</b>: Requires a Python environment to be installed and configured.</li></ul>


title: MODES OF OPERATION
content:
<i>mitmweb</i> supports several proxy modes, inheriting them from the <i>mitmproxy</i> core:<br><ul><li><b>Regular Proxy</b>: Clients explicitly configure <i>mitmweb</i> as their HTTP/HTTPS proxy.</li><li><b>Transparent Proxy</b>: Traffic is redirected to <i>mitmweb</i> without client-side configuration, often through firewall rules. This typically requires specific operating system setup and root privileges.</li><li><b>Reverse Proxy</b>: <i>mitmweb</i> acts as a frontend to a specific upstream server, making it appear as if <i>mitmweb</i> is the origin server.</li><li><b>SOCKS5 Proxy</b>: A general-purpose proxy that can handle various types of network traffic, not just HTTP/HTTPS.</li></ul>


title: CERTIFICATE INSTALLATION FOR HTTPS
content:
To intercept and decrypt HTTPS traffic, <i>mitmweb</i> generates its own Certificate Authority (CA) certificate. For this to work without security warnings, this CA certificate must be installed and trusted on the client device (e.g., browser, mobile phone, operating system). The easiest way to do this is by navigating to <I>http://mitm.it</I> through the proxy, which provides instructions and download links for the CA certificate.


title: SCRIPTING AND AUTOMATION
content:
Like <i>mitmproxy</i>, <i>mitmweb</i> offers powerful event-driven Python scripting capabilities. Users can write Python scripts that intercept and modify traffic on the fly, automate tests, or implement custom logic. These scripts can interact with various events in the proxy's lifecycle (e.g., request received, response sent) and can be loaded via the <i>--scripts</i> option (though often managed outside the direct <i>mitmweb</i> command-line invocation in more complex setups).


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mitmproxy</i>, the project behind <i>mitmweb</i>, was initially released in 2010 by @cortesi. As the core project evolved, the need for a more accessible, browser-based interface became apparent. <i>mitmweb</i> was subsequently introduced as a part of the <i>mitmproxy</i> suite, leveraging the same robust proxy engine while providing a rich graphical user interface. This allowed users to interact with traffic flows visually, making it easier to filter, modify, and analyze data without needing to master command-line intricacies. It has since been actively developed and maintained by the <i>mitmproxy</i> community, continuously integrating new features and improving usability.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-a, --assemble</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Assemble the input <i>file</i>, treating it as MIX assembly language source code. The output is typically a MIX binary executable.<br><br><b>-r, --run</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Execute the specified <i>file</i>. This can be a pre-assembled MIX binary or, if combined with <b>--assemble</b>, the newly assembled program.<br><br><b>-d, --debug</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Run the program in interactive debug mode. This allows for stepping through instructions, setting breakpoints, and inspecting the machine's state (registers, memory, I/O).<br><br><b>-o, --output <i><file></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the output <i>file</i> name for assembled binaries or simulation logs.<br><br><b>-m, --memory <i><size></i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the simulated main memory size for the MIX machine in words (e.g., 5000 for standard MIX).<br><br><b>-v, --verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable verbose output, showing detailed information during assembly, execution, or debugging.<br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a brief help message and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mix</b> command, in this analytical context, is conceptualized as a powerful utility for interacting with Donald Knuth's <i>MIX</i> computer architecture, a hypothetical machine extensively detailed in <i>The Art of Computer Programming</i>. It would provide a comprehensive environment on a Linux system to assemble <i>MIX</i> assembly language programs into executable <i>MIX</i> machine code and then meticulously simulate their execution. This command would be invaluable for pedagogical purposes, enabling users to delve deep into low-level programming concepts, observe program flow, inspect memory contents, register states, and interact with simulated I/O devices. It facilitates a hands-on understanding of computer organization, making abstract theoretical concepts tangible. The <b>mix</b> command would bridge the gap between classroom learning and practical experimentation, allowing students and enthusiasts to write, debug, and analyze <i>MIX</i> programs in a controlled virtual environment.


title: CAVEATS
content:
This analysis describes a hypothetical <b>mix</b> command based on common implementations of Donald Knuth's <i>MIX</i> computer simulators. A standard, universally available Linux command named 'mix' for this specific purpose does not exist in typical distributions. Actual implementations found in specific software packages may vary significantly in their command-line interface, options, and features. Users should refer to the documentation of their specific <i>MIX</i> simulator if installed.


title: ARCHITECTURE OVERVIEW
content:
The <i>MIX</i> computer is a byte-addressable, fixed-word-length machine. It features 5000 main memory locations, each capable of storing a 5-byte word plus a sign. It includes 8 general-purpose registers (A, X, I1-I6), 2 index registers, and several specialized registers (J for jump return, OV for overflow, CMP for comparison). The machine's 'byte' is defined as 6 bits, allowing a MIX word to store either 5 bytes or a 5-digit number (each digit from 0-63). I/O operations include support for magnetic tapes, disks, card readers/punches, line printers, and consoles.


title: INSTRUCTION SET CHARACTERISTICS
content:
<i>MIX</i> boasts a concise yet powerful instruction set designed to be representative of real-world machines while remaining simple enough for pedagogical purposes. Instructions are typically one word long and include categories such as arithmetic (ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV), data transfer (LOAD, STORE), logical (AND, OR, XOR), control flow (JMP, JSJ, JGE, JNE, etc.), shift operations, and input/output commands. The instruction set also features field specification, allowing operations to target specific portions of a word.


title: HISTORY
content:
The conceptual foundation for the <i>MIX</i> machine was laid by Donald Knuth in 1968 with the publication of the first volume of <i>The Art of Computer Programming</i>. Designed as an educational tool, <i>MIX</i> is a theoretical computer used to illustrate fundamental algorithms and data structures without tying them to a specific real-world architecture. Over the decades, numerous software simulators and assemblers for <i>MIX</i> have been developed by enthusiasts, academics, and students in various programming languages (e.g., C, Pascal, Java, Python). These diverse implementations, often available as open-source projects, enable the execution of <i>MIX</i> programs on modern operating systems like Linux, effectively bringing Knuth's theoretical machine to life for practical study and experimentation.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a concise help message detailing available command-line options and exits.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the installed Mixxx version information to the console and exits.<br><br><b>--list-midi</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lists all detected MIDI input and output devices connected to the system, useful for troubleshooting controller setup.<br><br><b>--list-audio-devices</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enumerates all available audio input and output devices recognized by Mixxx, aiding in audio interface configuration.<br><br><b>--list-controllers</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows a list of all built-in and custom controller presets and mappings available within Mixxx.<br><br><b>--developer-mode</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Activates special developer-oriented features and logging, useful for debugging and testing new functionalities.<br><br><b>--enable-debug-log</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables extensive debugging output, which is often written to a log file for detailed analysis of issues.<br><br><b>--load-library &lt;file&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Loads a specific Mixxx library XML file specified by &lt;file&gt; instead of the default library.<br><br><b>--open-file &lt;file&gt; [...&lt;file&gt;]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Opens one or more specified audio files directly in Mixxx, often loading them into available decks or the library.<br><br><b>--no-library</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Starts Mixxx without loading the default music library, resulting in a blank library view.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
Mixxx is a powerful and versatile open-source DJ software designed for live mixing and performance. It offers a comprehensive set of features for both beginners and experienced DJs, allowing them to seamlessly mix audio files, integrate with a wide range of DJ hardware, and deliver captivating sets. Key functionalities include advanced beatmatching, looping, cueing, effects, harmonic mixing, and robust syncing capabilities. Mixxx also supports recording mixes and broadcasting live to internet radio streams via Shoutcast or Icecast. Being cross-platform, it is available on Linux, Windows, and macOS, and benefits from continuous development by a dedicated global community.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Mixxx is fundamentally a graphical user interface (GUI) application. While it offers a few command-line options for specific tasks like debugging or launching with custom configurations, the vast majority of its powerful features and settings are accessed and configured within its intuitive graphical interface. Achieving optimal performance, especially for low-latency audio mixing, often requires careful configuration of the underlying Linux audio system (e.g., ALSA or Jack) and sufficient system resources.


title: HARDWARE INTEGRATION
content:
A core strength of Mixxx is its extensive support for a wide range of DJ hardware. It seamlessly integrates with most MIDI and HID controllers, providing tactile control over virtual decks, effects, and other parameters. Furthermore, Mixxx offers native support for Digital Vinyl Systems (DVS), allowing DJs to control their digital music collection using traditional turntables and timecode vinyl.


title: BROADCASTING AND RECORDING
content:
Mixxx empowers DJs to not only perform live but also to share their creations. It includes built-in capabilities to record entire DJ sets directly to the computer's disk, ensuring high-quality archives of performances. Additionally, Mixxx supports live broadcasting to internet radio servers via popular protocols like Shoutcast and Icecast, enabling DJs to reach a global audience in real-time.


title: HISTORY
content:
Mixxx originated in early 2001 as an open-source project by Tue Haste Andersen, with its first public release in 2002. Since then, it has grown into a highly regarded, professional-grade DJ software. Its development has been driven by a passionate community of volunteers, focusing on robust features, broad hardware compatibility, and cross-platform availability. This collaborative approach has ensured continuous innovation and responsiveness to the needs of modern DJs.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-a</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Build all targets explicitly listed in the mkfile, even if they appear to be up-to-date.<br><br><b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Clean targets by removing files generated by the build process, typically defined in an "install" or "clean" rule.<br><br><b><b>-d</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable debug mode, printing detailed information about rule evaluation, dependency resolution, and command execution.<br><br><b><b>-f file</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify an alternate mkfile to use instead of the default "mkfile" or "Mkfile".<br><br><b><b>-k</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Keep going; continue building other targets even if errors occur during the compilation of some targets.<br><br><b><b>-n</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No-execute; perform a dry run, printing the commands that would be executed without actually running them.<br><br><b><b>-p</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print the parsed rules and dependencies as <b>mk</b> understands them, useful for debugging mkfiles.<br><br><b><b>-r</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Remove dependencies; delete the dependency files generated by <b>mk</b> (often hidden files used for quick rebuilding).<br><br><b><b>-s</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Silent mode; suppress the printing of commands as they are executed. Only output from the commands themselves will be shown.<br><br><b><b>-t</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Touch; update the modification time of target files without executing their recipes. Useful for marking targets as up-to-date.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>The <b>mk</b> command is a sophisticated build tool originating from the Plan 9 from Bell Labs operating system. While not a standard utility bundled with most mainstream Linux distributions, it is widely available through the Plan 9 from User Space (<b>plan9port</b>) project, allowing it to run seamlessly on Linux. <b>mk</b> serves a similar purpose to the traditional Unix <b>make</b> utility: to automate the compilation and linking of software projects and manage arbitrary dependencies. However, <b>mk</b> is designed with a focus on simplicity, readability, and inherent concurrency. It resolves dependencies and executes commands in parallel by default, making efficient use of multi-core processors. Its rule syntax is often considered more straightforward than <b>make</b>'s, using semicolons to separate dependencies from recipes and lacking complex directives, thus leading to more concise and maintainable build scripts.</i>


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>The <b>mk</b> command is <b>not</b> a standard, pre-installed utility on most Linux distributions. Its primary origin is the Plan 9 operating system. To use <b>mk</b> on Linux, you typically need to install the <b>plan9port</b> package or compile it from source. Consequently, its presence cannot be assumed on every Linux system. Its rule syntax and feature set differ significantly from the ubiquitous GNU <b>make</b>, meaning mkfiles are generally incompatible with <b>make</b> and vice-versa. Users accustomed to <b>make</b>'s extensive features, such as pattern rules or sophisticated variable expansion, may find <b>mk</b> more restrictive but often clearer in its design.</i>


title: MKFILES AND BASIC RULES
content:
<i>An <b>mk</b> build script, known as an mkfile (typically named "mkfile" or "Mkfile"), defines the relationships between files and the commands needed to build them. A basic rule in an mkfile consists of a target, its dependencies, and a recipe (the commands to execute), all separated by a semicolon. For example:<br><b>prog: main.o sub.o<br>	${LD} -o $@ main.o sub.o<br><br>main.o: main.c<br>	${CC} -c -o $@ $<br></b><br>Here, `prog` depends on `main.o` and `sub.o`. The recipe for `prog` is executed if `prog` is older than its dependencies. The variables `$` (target name), `$<` (first dependency), and `$*` (all dependencies) are commonly used within recipes. <b>mk</b> automatically handles parallel execution of independent rules.</i>


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>The <b>mk</b> utility was developed at Bell Labs as part of the Plan 9 operating system project, which began in the late 1980s as a successor to Unix. Designed by Stuart Feldman, who also created the original Unix <b>make</b>, <b>mk</b> represents a re-thinking of build system design. It aimed to simplify the complexity often associated with <b>make</b> and to provide inherent support for parallel execution without requiring explicit job control. Its development reflects Plan 9's overall philosophy of simplicity, clarity, and distributed computing. While Plan 9 never achieved mainstream adoption like Unix, <b>mk</b> remains a respected and influential build tool, particularly within the Plan 9 community and those appreciating its elegant design, accessible through ports to other operating systems like Linux.</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>KEYMAP_FILE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The path to the input keymap file that defines keyboard mappings. If this argument is omitted, <b>mk_modmap</b> reads the keymap data from standard input (stdin).<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs version information and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mk_modmap</b> command is a utility from the <i>kbd</i> package used to generate a <i>modmap</i> file from a given <i>keymap</i> file. It defines how modifier keys (like Shift, Alt, Ctrl) interact with other keys for the Linux console (text-mode) environment. This tool reads the specified keymap file (or standard input if no file is provided) and outputs the resulting modmap data to standard output. It's essential for configuring low-level keyboard behavior outside of a graphical desktop environment.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mk_modmap</b> is primarily designed for configuring keyboard layouts in the <i>Linux console</i> (text mode) and is not directly used for the <i>X Window System</i> (graphical environment), which uses its own keyboard configuration mechanisms (e.g., XKB).<br>While still functional, its direct use might be less common in modern desktop Linux distributions where graphical tools or high-level configuration utilities often abstract these low-level details. Systemd's <i>localectl</i> command also offers consolidated keyboard layout management.


title: PURPOSE OF MODMAP FILES
content:
<i>Modmap</i> files define which modifier keys (such as Shift, Alt, Ctrl, and others) are associated with specific keycodes and how these modifiers interact with other keys. They are crucial for the Linux kernel to correctly interpret keyboard input, allowing for combinations like Alt+F1 or Ctrl+C to function as intended.


title: USAGE EXAMPLE
content:
To generate a modmap from an existing keymap file and view its content:<br><i>mk_modmap my_keymap.map</i><br><br>To save the generated modmap to a file:<br><i>mk_modmap my_keymap.map > my_modmap.mod</i>


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mk_modmap</b> is a long-standing component of the <i>kbd</i> package, a collection of utilities for keyboard and console management on Linux. Its development has been intertwined with the evolution of console keyboard configuration, offering a way to programmatically derive modifier key behavior from the more comprehensive keymap definitions. It has been particularly relevant in scenarios requiring precise control over keyboard layouts in text-only environments or embedded systems since the early days of Linux.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mkcert</b> <i>[-install]</i> <br><b>mkcert</b> <i>[-uninstall]</i> <br><b>mkcert</b> <i>[-CAROOT &lt;path&gt;] [-key-file &lt;file&gt;] [-cert-file &lt;file&gt;] &lt;domain&gt; [&lt;domain&gt;...]</i> <br><b>mkcert</b> <i>[-help]</i> <br><b>mkcert</b> <i>[-version]</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><domain> [<domain>...]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies one or more domain names or IP addresses (e.g., <i>localhost</i>, <i>127.0.0.1</i>, <i>myapi.dev</i>) for which the certificate will be generated.<br><br><b>-install</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Installs the <b>mkcert</b> local CA into the system trust store(s). This command usually needs to be run once initially to set up trust.<br><br><b>-uninstall</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Uninstalls the <b>mkcert</b> local CA from the system trust store(s), removing its trust.<br><br><b>-CAROOT <path></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative directory where the local CA files (private key and certificate) will be stored. Defaults to a standard location in the user's home directory.<br><br><b>-key-file <file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the output path where the generated private key for the certificate will be saved. If not provided, a file named <i>&lt;domain&gt;+&lt;N&gt;-key.pem</i> will be created in the current directory.<br><br><b>-cert-file <file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the output path where the generated certificate will be saved. If not provided, a file named <i>&lt;domain&gt;+&lt;N&gt;.pem</i> will be created in the current directory.<br><br><b>-ecdsa</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Generates an ECDSA (Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm) private key and certificate instead of the default RSA. ECDSA keys are generally smaller and faster.<br><br><b>-help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays detailed usage information and a list of all available options for <b>mkcert</b>.<br><br><b>-version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the current version of the <b>mkcert</b> utility.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mkcert</b> is a simple, zero-config tool designed for creating locally trusted SSL/TLS certificates for development. It automates the complex process of setting up HTTPS for local environments, eliminating browser security warnings like "Not Secure" or "Your connection is not private." <br><br>When first run, <b>mkcert</b> automatically creates a unique local Certificate Authority (CA) and installs it into the operating system's trust store, as well as common browsers like Firefox, Chrome, Safari, and Edge. This one-time setup ensures that any certificates subsequently generated by <b>mkcert</b> are trusted by your local machine and its applications. <br><br>Developers can then use <b>mkcert</b> to generate valid, trusted certificates for <i>localhost</i>, <i>127.0.0.1</i>, custom domains, or even wildcard domains (e.g., <i>*.dev.test</i>) without needing to manually deal with OpenSSL commands or intricate trust store configurations. It's cross-platform, working seamlessly on Linux, macOS, and Windows, making it an indispensable tool for modern web development.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mkcert</b> is specifically designed for local development and testing environments. Certificates generated are not intended for public-facing production servers and will not be trusted by clients outside your local machine. <br><br>The <i>-install</i> and <i>-uninstall</i> commands may require administrator privileges (e.g., using <i>sudo</i> on Linux) to modify system-wide trust stores. <br><br>While <b>mkcert</b> tries to install the CA into common browser trust stores, some applications or specific configurations might require manual import of the CA certificate.


title: LOCAL CERTIFICATE AUTHORITY (CA)
content:
Upon first execution of <i>mkcert -install</i>, <b>mkcert</b> generates a unique private Certificate Authority (CA) on your machine. This CA acts as your personal root of trust. It's then installed into your system's and browsers' trust stores, allowing all certificates signed by this CA to be considered valid and trusted by your local environment, bypassing browser security warnings.


title: WILDCARD AND MULTI-DOMAIN CERTIFICATES
content:
<b>mkcert</b> supports generating certificates for multiple domain names and IP addresses simultaneously (e.g., <i>mkcert localhost example.com 192.168.1.1</i>). It also allows for the creation of wildcard certificates (e.g., <i>mkcert '*.dev.test'</i>), which can secure all subdomains under a specified domain with a single certificate, making it highly flexible for complex development setups.


title: CROSS-PLATFORM COMPATIBILITY
content:
One of <b>mkcert</b>'s key strengths is its seamless operation across different operating systems. It functions identically on Linux, macOS, and Windows, abstracting away the underlying differences in trust store management. This ensures a consistent development experience regardless of the host environment.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mkcert</b> was created and open-sourced in 2018 by Filippo Valsorda, a cryptographer and Go developer working at Google. Its primary motivation was to address the common pain point of setting up trusted HTTPS for local development, which historically involved complex OpenSSL commands and manual certificate management. Valsorda designed <b>mkcert</b> to be a simpler, more user-friendly alternative, leveraging Go's robust standard library for cryptography. It quickly gained popularity among developers for its ease of use and cross-platform compatibility, establishing itself as a de-facto standard for local HTTPS setup.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-m</b> <i>MODE</i><br><b>--mode</b>=<i>MODE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the file <i>mode</i> (permissions) for the created directory. <i>MODE</i> can be an octal number (e.g., <i>755</i> for rwxr-xr-x) or a symbolic representation (e.g., <i>u=rwx,go=rx</i>).<br><br><b><b>-p</b><br><b>--parents</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates parent directories as needed. No error is reported if a directory already exists. This is particularly useful for creating deep, nested directory structures with a single command.<br><br><b><b>-v</b><br><b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints a message for each directory created, providing feedback on the command's execution.<br><br><b><b>--context</b>=<i>CTX</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the SELinux security context of the created directory to <i>CTX</i>. Only available on systems with SELinux enabled.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message with command usage and options, then exits.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Outputs version information for the <b>mkdir</b> command and then exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mkdir</b> is a fundamental command-line utility used to create new directories (folders) in the file system. It allows users to organize files by creating structured paths for storing data.<br><br>When invoked, <b>mkdir</b> creates a new directory at the specified path. By default, it creates only the last component of the path, failing if any parent directory in the path does not exist. However, the <b>-p</b> (parents) option allows <b>mkdir</b> to create any necessary parent directories along the way if they don't already exist.<br><br>Directories are created with default permissions, typically <i>rwxrwxrwx</i> (0777) modified by the user's <i>umask</i>. The <b>-m</b> (mode) option provides explicit control over these permissions. <b>mkdir</b> is crucial for managing and structuring data efficiently within the Linux environment, enabling users to maintain an organized file hierarchy. It can create multiple directories simultaneously by listing them as arguments.


title: CAVEATS
content:
When creating directories, the default permissions are significantly affected by the user's <i>umask</i> setting, which can restrict permissions (e.g., preventing group or others from writing).<br><br>Without the <b>-p</b> option, <b>mkdir</b> will fail if any parent directory in the specified path does not exist. It also fails if the target directory name already exists at the specified location (unless <b>-p</b> is used, in which case it does nothing).<br><br>Users must have appropriate write permissions in the parent directory where the new directory is to be created. Filesystem path length limits, which vary by operating system, may also apply.


title: UNDERSTANDING UMASK
content:
The <i>umask</i> (user file-creation mask) command determines the default file and directory permissions when they are created. For directories, the default permission is initially 0777 (rwxrwxrwx). The umask value is then subtracted from this initial value to determine the final permissions. For example, if your <i>umask</i> is 0022, a new directory will be created with permissions 0755 (0777 - 0022 = 0755), meaning owner has full permissions, while group and others can only read and traverse.<br><br>Using <b>mkdir -m</b> allows you to explicitly set permissions for a specific directory, overriding the effect of the <i>umask</i>.


title: PERMISSIONS MODES
content:
Directory permissions control who can read its contents, write (create/delete files/subdirectories) within it, and execute/traverse into it. They are commonly specified in octal notation (e.g., <i>755</i>), where each digit represents permissions for the owner, group, and others, respectively.<br><br>The 'execute' permission (<i>x</i> or <i>1</i> in octal) for a directory is crucial: it allows a user to <i>enter</i> or <i>traverse</i> into the directory and access its contents, even if they don't have read permission on the directory itself (though they couldn't list its contents in that case).


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>mkdir</b> command has been a fundamental utility since the early days of Unix. It was included in the first versions of Unix in the 1970s and has since been standardized by POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface). Its core functionality has remained remarkably consistent over decades, reflecting its essential and unchanging role in basic file system management. It is implemented as a system call in the kernel, making it a very low-level and efficient operation.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>&lt;output_file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The path and name of the disk image file to be created. This file will be overwritten if it already exists.<br><br><b><i>&lt;size&gt;</i>[kMGT]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The desired size of the disk image. The size can be specified in bytes (default), or with suffixes: 'k' for kilobytes, 'M' for megabytes, 'G' for gigabytes, or 'T' for terabytes (e.g., '10M' for 10 megabytes).<br><br><b>-v, --verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, showing more details about the image creation process.<br><br><b>-q, --quiet</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses all output except for critical errors, making the command run silently.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mkdiskimage</b> command is a utility designed to create a blank, unformatted disk image file. These image files are typically used as virtual disks for virtual machines, bootable media (like floppy or USB drives), or in embedded system development environments. While its functionality can often be replicated using standard Linux tools like <b>dd</b>, <b>mkdiskimage</b> often serves as a convenient wrapper or a component within specific build systems to streamline the process of allocating space for a disk image before it's formatted with a filesystem. It's particularly useful when a precisely sized raw image is needed as a precursor to creating FAT (File Allocation Table) filesystems using utilities such as <b>mkfs.fat</b>. The command provides a straightforward method to quickly generate an image file that can then be partitioned, formatted, and populated with data, simulating a physical disk.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mkdiskimage</b> is <I>not</I> a standard, universally available command found in core Linux utility packages like <b>util-linux</b> or <b>dosfstools</b> on most modern distributions. Its presence and exact behavior vary significantly. It is often a custom shell script implemented within specific projects (e.g., for embedded systems or legacy boot environments) or part of older, less common toolchains. Users should verify its availability and specific syntax on their system. It typically creates a raw, unformatted image; subsequent formatting with tools like <b>mkfs.fat</b> is usually required.


title: COMMON USAGE PATTERN
content:
A typical workflow involving <b>mkdiskimage</b> often follows these steps:<br>1. <I>Create the image:</I> <code><b>mkdiskimage</b> <i>my_image.img</i> <i>10M</i></code><br>2. <I>Format with FAT:</I> <code><b>mkfs.fat</b> <i>my_image.img</i></code><br>3. <I>Mount the image (optional):</I> <code><b>sudo losetup -f my_image.img</b></code> followed by <code><b>sudo mount /dev/loopX /mnt/my_image</b></code>


title: IMPLEMENTATION VARIATIONS
content:
Due to its non-standard nature, the <b>mkdiskimage</b> command can have different implementations. Some versions might directly integrate filesystem creation (e.g., calling <b>mkfs.fat</b> internally), while others might only create the raw file and leave formatting to the user. Always consult the documentation or source code for the specific <b>mkdiskimage</b> script or utility you are using.


title: HISTORY
content:
The conceptual need for a <b>mkdiskimage</b> utility arose in scenarios requiring the creation of specific disk layouts, particularly for bootable media (like floppy disks or early hard disk images) for DOS/BIOS environments. While not a single, standardized command, scripts named <b>mkdiskimage</b> have been historically used in various projects to automate the process of creating a raw disk image file and sometimes immediately formatting it with a FAT filesystem. Its typical implementation leverages lower-level commands like <b>dd</b> for file allocation and <b>mkfs.fat</b> for formatting. Its prominence has waned with the shift away from physical bootable media and simple FAT-based bootloaders, but it remains relevant in niche areas such as embedded system development, emulation of legacy systems, and specialized build processes.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>DEVICE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The special file corresponding to the block device or partition (e.g., <b>/dev/sdb1</b>, <b>/dev/loop0</b>) where the FAT file system will be created.<br><br><b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Instructs <i>mkdosfs</i> to check the device for bad blocks before proceeding with file system creation. This process can significantly increase the execution time.<br><br><b><b>-F</b> <i>&lt;fat-type&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the FAT type to be created. Valid arguments are <b>12</b>, <b>16</b>, or <b>32</b>. If this option is omitted, <i>mkdosfs</i> will attempt to automatically determine the most suitable FAT type based on the size of the target device.<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, providing more detailed information about the file system creation process as it unfolds.<br><br><b><b>-n</b> <i>&lt;volume-id&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the 32-bit hexadecimal volume ID for the new file system. An example format is <b>0x1234ABCD</b>.<br><br><b><b>-L</b> <i>&lt;volume-label&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Assigns a volume label (up to 11 characters) to the new file system. Special characters are generally not supported, but spaces are usually allowed.<br><br><b><b>-s</b> <i>&lt;sectors-per-cluster&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the number of disk sectors that constitute a single cluster. A cluster represents the smallest unit of disk space that can be allocated to a file.<br><br><b><b>-R</b> <i>&lt;reserved-sectors&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the count of reserved sectors located at the beginning of the FAT file system. Typical values are <b>1</b> for FAT12/16 and <b>32</b> for FAT32.<br><br><b><b>-f</b> <i>&lt;number-of-fats&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Determines the number of File Allocation Tables to be created. The default and common value for redundancy is <b>2</b>.<br><br><b><b>-r</b> <i>&lt;root-dir-entries&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the maximum number of root directory entries for FAT12/16 file systems. A common value is <b>512</b>.<br><br><b><b>-I</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables the confirmation prompt, forcing the overwrite of existing data without warning. Use with extreme caution.<br><br><b><b>-C</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Causes <i>mkdosfs</i> to create the file system within a regular file, which is useful for generating disk images.<br><br><b><b>-h</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a brief help message detailing command usage and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mkdosfs</i>, also known as <i>mkfs.fat</i>, is a command-line utility used to create a FAT (File Allocation Table) file system on a specified device. This device can be a disk partition, a removable drive like a USB stick or SD card, or even a regular file intended to act as a disk image.<br><br>Its primary function is to initialize the necessary file system structures, including the boot sector, File Allocation Tables, and the root directory, making the medium ready for file storage. FAT file systems (FAT12, FAT16, FAT32) are widely recognized for their broad compatibility across various operating systems such as DOS, Windows, macOS, and Linux, as well as many embedded systems. This makes <i>mkdosfs</i> an indispensable tool for preparing portable storage media that need to be universally accessible.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>DANGER:</b> Executing <i>mkdosfs</i> on a device will <b>permanently erase all existing data</b> on that device or partition. Always meticulously verify the target <i>DEVICE</i> to prevent unintentional data loss.<br><br>Operating on block devices (e.g., <b>/dev/sdb1</b>) generally requires <b>root privileges</b>.<br><br>FAT file systems inherently possess certain limitations, including the absence of built-in file permissions, case-insensitivity for filenames, and practical file size constraints, particularly with FAT12/16.


title: FILE SYSTEM TYPES AND COMMON USAGE
content:
<i>mkdosfs</i> supports the creation of FAT12, FAT16, and FAT32 file systems. The selection of the FAT type is typically governed by the size of the partition and the required compatibility. FAT32 is generally recommended for partitions exceeding 2GB, whereas FAT12/16 may be utilized for smaller volumes, older systems, or highly specialized embedded applications.<br><br>While <i>mkdosfs</i> technically can format an entire physical drive (e.g., <b>/dev/sdb</b>), it is far more common and safer to format a specific partition (e.g., <b>/dev/sdb1</b>) that has been previously defined and created using a disk partitioning tool such as <i>fdisk</i> or <i>parted</i>. Always confirm the exact device path to avoid critical data loss.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mkdosfs</i> is a core component of the <b>dosfstools</b> project, a collection of utilities designed for managing FAT file systems on Linux and other Unix-like operating systems. It functions as the specific implementation of the general <i>mkfs</i> command for the FAT file system type, developed to ensure robust compatibility with DOS and Windows environments.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-m, --mode=MODE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the file mode (permissions) of the named pipe. MODE can be an octal number (e.g., 0644) or a symbolic mode string (e.g., u=rw,go=r), similar to <b>chmod</b>.<br><br><b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a help message and exit.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Output version information and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>The <b>mkfifo</b> command creates a special file on the file system called a named pipe, also known as a FIFO (First-In, First-Out). Unlike regular files, a FIFO does not store data on disk; instead, it acts as a one-way communication channel, a conduit, between two or more processes. When data is written to a FIFO by one process, it can be read from the same FIFO by another process. This mechanism facilitates inter-process communication (IPC) in a way that regular files cannot, as it enforces sequential, ordered data flow.</i><br><br><i>Named pipes are particularly useful in shell scripting for orchestrating complex workflows where different parts of a script or different programs need to exchange data. For instance, one process can write its output to a FIFO, and another process can simultaneously read from it as input, allowing for a producer-consumer pattern without using temporary files or complex redirection. The FIFO appears as a file in the directory listing, but its behavior is distinctly that of a pipe. It persists on the file system until explicitly removed, typically with the <b>rm</b> command.</i>


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i><br><b>mkfifo</b> creates a file system entry, but it's not a regular file that stores data. It's a special file type.<br>Reading from or writing to a FIFO can cause the process to block until another process opens the other end of the pipe. This blocking behavior is fundamental to how FIFOs work for synchronization.<br>Permissions set for the FIFO are crucial, as they control which users and processes can read from or write to it.<br>Named pipes persist on the file system until they are explicitly removed using <b>rm</b>, unlike anonymous pipes which are ephemeral.</i>


title: USAGE PATTERN
content:
<i>Named pipes are commonly used in a 'producer-consumer' pattern. One process 'produces' data by writing to the FIFO, and another process 'consumes' data by reading from it. For example, in one terminal: <b>ls -l > myfifo</b>. In another terminal: <b>cat < myfifo</b>. The output of <b>ls -l</b> will be streamed through 'myfifo' to <b>cat</b>. This allows for concurrent execution without needing to store intermediate results in a temporary file.</i>


title: DIFFERENCE FROM ANONYMOUS PIPES
content:
<i>Anonymous pipes (created with the <b>|</b> operator in shells, e.g., <b>command1 | command2</b>) are unnamed and temporary; they exist only for the duration of the connected processes and cannot be accessed by unrelated processes. Named pipes, created by <b>mkfifo</b>, have a name in the file system, persist until deleted, and can be opened by any process with appropriate permissions, allowing communication between entirely unrelated processes or processes started at different times.</i>


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>The concept of named pipes (FIFOs) originated in Unix-like operating systems to provide a file system-based mechanism for inter-process communication. The <b>mkfifo</b> command, which creates these named pipes, is standardized as part of the POSIX.1 specification. Its functionality is underpinned by the <b>mknod</b> system call, which is a more general interface for creating various special files. <b>mkfifo</b> was introduced to provide a more specific and user-friendly way to create only FIFOs, simplifying the process compared to directly using <b>mknod</b> with specific device types. Its inclusion in POSIX ensures its availability and consistent behavior across different Unix-like systems.</i>


title: SEE ALSO
content:
pipe(7): <i>Overview of pipes and FIFOs.</i>, fifo(7): <i>Manual page specifically for named pipes.</i>, mknod(1): <i>General command to create special files, including FIFOs (<b>mkfifo</b> is a simpler interface for FIFOs).</i>, mknod(2): <i>System call to create special files.</i>, chmod(1): <i>Change file permissions of a FIFO.</i>, rm(1): <i>Remove a named pipe from the file system.</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-n</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not pre-allocate blocks. This creates a sparse file where disk blocks are not allocated until data is actually written to them, though the file size is reported as specified.<br><br><b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Verbose mode. Displays the filename and its size as it is created.<br><br><b><i>size</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The desired size of the file. This can be an integer followed by a unit suffix (e.g., 'k' for kilobyte, 'm' for megabyte, 'g' for gigabyte, 't' for terabyte). If no suffix is provided, bytes are assumed.<br><br><b><i>filename</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The name of the file to create.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mkfile</b> command is used to create a file of a specified size. Unlike commands like <b>touch</b>, which only updates access/modification times or creates an empty file, <b>mkfile</b> pre-allocates disk space for the file and typically fills it with zeros, effectively creating a placeholder file of a specific size. This functionality is often useful for creating swap files, testing disk space allocation, or preparing large files for later content.<br><br>While commonly found on Solaris and macOS (Darwin) systems, <b>mkfile</b> is <i>not</i> a standard utility on most GNU/Linux distributions. Linux users typically rely on commands like <b>dd</b>, <b>fallocate</b>, or <b>truncate</b> to achieve similar results. If <b>mkfile</b> is present on a Linux system, it's usually via a compatibility package or a specific distribution's tooling, rather than being part of the standard GNU Coreutils.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mkfile</b> is primarily a Solaris and macOS command. It is <i>not</i> part of standard GNU Coreutils found on most Linux distributions. Attempting to use <b>mkfile</b> on a typical Linux system will often result in a 'command not found' error. Linux users should use alternatives like <b>dd</b>, <b>fallocate</b>, or <b>truncate</b> for creating fixed-size files.


title: LINUX ALTERNATIVES
content:
On Linux, there are several robust alternatives to <b>mkfile</b>:<br><ul><li><b>dd</b>: For creating a zero-filled file: <b>dd</b> <i>if=/dev/zero of=filename bs=1M count=100</i> (creates a 100MB file).</li><li><b>fallocate</b>: For fast pre-allocation of space: <b>fallocate</b> <i>-l 100M filename</i> (creates and allocates 100MB, often faster than <b>dd</b>).</li><li><b>truncate</b>: For changing file size, can extend or shrink: <b>truncate</b> <i>-s 100M filename</i> (can create sparse files if extending).</li></ul>These commands offer similar or enhanced capabilities to <b>mkfile</b> and are universally available on Linux.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>mkfile</b> utility originated in the Solaris operating system. It was designed to provide a straightforward way to create files of a specific size, particularly useful for tasks like setting up swap space. Its presence on macOS (Darwin) reflects its Unix heritage. However, it was never adopted as a standard utility within the GNU Coreutils suite that forms the basis of most Linux distributions, leading to its relative obscurity and the use of different commands for similar functionality in the Linux ecosystem.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>directory...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;One or more directories to scan for fonts and create or update the <I>fonts.dir</I> file. If no directories are specified, the <I>current working directory</I> (<B>.</B>) is used.<br><br><b>-x</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Do not print an error message</I> if the <I>fonts.dir</I> file cannot be updated. This option is typically used in scripts where suppressing error output is desired.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mkfontdir</i> is a <i>utility program</i> for the <b>X Window System</b> designed to create or update the <I>fonts.dir</I> file within specified font directories. This file serves as a crucial index, mapping font filenames to their full <b>X Logical Font Description (XLFD)</b> names. The <I>fonts.dir</I> file is essential for traditional X font servers (like <I>xfs</I>) and X applications to efficiently locate and load fonts without needing to scan every font file individually. When new fonts are added to a directory, <i>mkfontdir</i> should be run to ensure they are properly indexed and available to X applications. If a <I>fonts.dir</I> file already exists, <i>mkfontdir</i> attempts to merge new font information into it, preserving existing entries and updating outdated ones. It is primarily used for bitmap fonts, though it can also be used in conjunction with <I>mkfontscale</I> for scalable fonts.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mkfontdir</i> primarily generates the <i>fonts.dir</i> file, which is an index for <b>bitmap fonts</b>.<br>For scalable fonts (like TrueType, Type1), it's generally recommended to use <i>mkfontscale</i> first, which generates <i>fonts.scale</i> and can also update <i>fonts.dir</i> with proper XLFD names.<br>The created <i>fonts.dir</i> needs to be recognized by the X font server or clients. This usually involves adding the directory to the X font path using <b>xset fp+</b> or configuring <i>xfs</i> or <i>fontconfig</i>.<br><b>Permissions</b>: <i>mkfontdir</i> must have write permissions to the target directories to create or update <i>fonts.dir</i>.


title: PURPOSE OF FONTS.DIR
content:
The <I>fonts.dir</I> file is a plain text file where each line represents a font. It maps the actual font filename to its full <b>X Logical Font Description (XLFD)</b> name, which includes various attributes like foundry, family, weight, slant, spacing, and size. This index allows X applications to request fonts by their XLFD name without needing to know the underlying filename.


title: INTERACTION WITH MKFONTSCALE
content:
While <I>mkfontdir</I> alone can create a <I>fonts.dir</I> file primarily for bitmap fonts, it is often run in conjunction with <I>mkfontscale</I>. <I>mkfontscale</I> parses scalable font files (like TrueType or Type1) and generates a <I>fonts.scale</I> file, which also includes the XLFD names. <I>mkfontscale</I> can also update <I>fonts.dir</I> with these XLFD names for scalable fonts. For a complete font directory setup, the common practice is to run <I>mkfontscale</I> (which might implicitly call or handle <I>fonts.dir</I> generation) and then <I>mkfontdir</I> if needed, or simply let <I>mkfontscale</I> handle both.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mkfontdir</i> has been a fundamental utility in the <b>X Window System</b> since its early days, originating with <b>X11R5</b> or earlier. Its primary purpose was to efficiently index font directories by creating the <I>fonts.dir</I> file, which was crucial for X servers and clients to locate and load fonts. Before its introduction, manual indexing or inefficient scanning was required. With the evolution of font technologies, particularly scalable fonts, <i>mkfontscale</i> was developed to handle the more complex indexing of <b>Type1</b> and <b>TrueType</b> fonts, often working in conjunction with <i>mkfontdir</i>. Despite the modern prominence of <b>Fontconfig</b> for font management in many Linux environments, <i>mkfontdir</i> remains relevant for traditional X applications and systems relying on the legacy X font server mechanism.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
mkfontscale [-a <I>alias-file</I>] [-b] [-c] [-e <I>encoding-name</I>] [-f] [-l] [-o <I>output-file</I>] [-p <I>prefix</I>] [-s] [-t] [-u] [-v] [-x <I>directory</I>] [<I>directory</I>...]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-a</b> <I>alias-file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Appends aliases from the specified <I>alias-file</I> to the generated <I>fonts.scale</I> file.<br><br><b><b>-b</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Excludes bitmap fonts from the generated output. Only scalable fonts will be listed.<br><br><b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Excludes scalable fonts from the generated output. Only bitmap fonts will be listed.<br><br><b><b>-e</b> <I>encoding-name</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds the specified <I>encoding-name</I> to the list of encodings supported by fonts in the output.<br><br><b><b>-f</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces a complete scan of directories, even if <I>fonts.dir</I> or <I>fonts.scale</I> files already exist.<br><br><b><b>-l</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents scanning of subdirectories. By default, <I>mkfontscale</I> scans recursively.<br><br><b><b>-o</b> <I>output-file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the name of the output file instead of the default <I>fonts.scale</I>.<br><br><b><b>-p</b> <I>prefix</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds a <I>prefix</I> to the font names listed in the <I>fonts.scale</I> file.<br><br><b><b>-s</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not write <I>fonts.dir</I> information. Only the <I>fonts.scale</I> file will be generated.<br><br><b><b>-t</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not sort the output. This can be useful for comparing changes between runs.<br><br><b><b>-u</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Updates an existing <I>fonts.scale</I> file by adding new entries, without removing old ones.<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, providing more information about the scanning process.<br><br><b><b>-x</b> <I>directory</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Excludes the specified <I>directory</I> from being scanned.<br><br><b><I>directory</I>...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;One or more directories to scan for font files. If not specified, the current directory is scanned.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<I>mkfontscale</I> is a utility used in the X Window System to generate font scaling information. It scans a specified directory (and optionally its subdirectories) for font files, such as TrueType (.ttf) or Type 1 (.pfa, .pfb) fonts.<br><br>The primary output is a file named <I>fonts.scale</I>, which contains a list of font names, aliases, and their associated metrics. This file is crucial for the X server to correctly identify and scale available fonts. It allows the server to determine which font files provide scalable fonts and how they should be rendered at different sizes.<br><br>This utility complements <I>mkfontdir</I>, which primarily generates <I>fonts.dir</I> files listing font files and their canonical X font names. <I>mkfontscale</I> focuses specifically on the scaling capabilities of fonts, making them accessible to applications running within the X environment.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<I>mkfontscale</I> primarily deals with font scaling information for X servers. While its output can be consumed by modern font systems like <I>fontconfig</I>, desktop environments often rely more heavily on direct <I>fontconfig</I> configurations for comprehensive font management. Issues related to complex font rendering or font fallback are typically handled by <I>fontconfig</I> rather than <I>mkfontscale</I>.


title: PURPOSE OF <I>FONTS.SCALE</I>
content:
The <I>fonts.scale</I> file generated by <I>mkfontscale</I> is specifically designed to contain information about scalable fonts, such as TrueType and Type1 fonts. It lists the font names along with their scaling properties, allowing the X server to dynamically generate various sizes of a font on the fly. This contrasts with <I>fonts.dir</I>, which primarily lists bitmap fonts or specific fixed sizes of scalable fonts.


title: INTEGRATION WITH <I>FONTCONFIG</I>
content:
Although <I>mkfontscale</I> primarily targets the X server's native font mechanisms, <I>fontconfig</I>, the modern font configuration library, can also be configured to scan directories that contain <I>fonts.scale</I> files. This allows the information generated by <I>mkfontscale</I> to be leveraged within a more unified and flexible font management system, bridging older X font paths with contemporary font rendering practices.


title: HISTORY
content:
<I>mkfontscale</I> is a long-standing utility that originated as part of the core X Window System font utilities. It has been a fundamental component of the X.Org distribution since its inception, evolving alongside the X server and its font rendering capabilities. Its continued purpose is to make fonts available and correctly scaled within the X environment, often working in conjunction with more modern font rendering systems like <I>fontconfig</I>.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><I>device</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The special file (e.g., <I>/dev/sda1</I>) representing the block device or partition on which to create the file system.<br><br><b><I>-t type</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the type of file system to be built (e.g., <I>ext4</I>, <I>xfs</I>, <I>vfat</I>). If omitted, <B>mkfs</B> may default to <I>ext2</I> or require explicit specification depending on the system configuration.<br><br><b><I>fs-options</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Additional, file system-specific options that are passed directly to the underlying <B>mkfs.<I>type</I></B> utility. For example, <I>-b</I> for block size with <I>ext4</I> or <I>-L</I> for a label.<br><br><b><I>-c</I>, <I>--check</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Check the device for bad blocks before creating the file system. This option scans the entire device and can take a considerable amount of time.<br><br><b><I>-l <I>filename</I></I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Read the list of known bad blocks from the specified <I>filename</I> and mark them as unusable by the file system.<br><br><b><I>-F</I>, <I>--force</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force the creation of the file system, even if a file system is already detected on the device or if the device is not a block special device. Use with extreme caution as it bypasses safety checks.<br><br><b><I>-V</I>, <I>--verbose</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Produce verbose output, showing more details about the file system creation process, including commands executed and parameters used.<br><br><b><I>-q</I>, <I>--quiet</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress output, operating in a quieter mode. Only critical errors will be displayed.<br><br><b><I>size</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The number of blocks to be used for the file system. This option is less commonly used with the <B>mkfs</B> wrapper, as the underlying <B>mkfs.<I>type</I></B> utilities usually determine the size from the device.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <B>mkfs</B> (make file system) command is a crucial utility used to build a new file system on a specified block device, typically a disk partition or a logical volume.<br><br>It functions primarily as a front-end wrapper. When invoked, <B>mkfs</B> dispatches the request to a file system-specific utility, such as <B>mkfs.ext4</B>, <B>mkfs.xfs</B>, or <B>mkfs.btrfs</B>, based on the file system type provided (e.g., using the <I>-t</I> option). These underlying utilities then initialize the device by writing the necessary metadata structures: creating a superblock, inode tables, block groups, and setting up the root directory.<br><br>This process prepares the device for storing files and directories, making it ready to be mounted and used by the operating system. It is imperative to exercise extreme caution when using <B>mkfs</B>, as it <B>permanently destroys all existing data</B> on the target device.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Using <B>mkfs</B> is a destructive operation that will <B>erase all existing data</B> on the specified device. Always double-check the target device (<I>/dev/sdXn</I>) before execution to prevent irreversible data loss on incorrect partitions.<br><br>The device must <B>not be mounted</B> when <B>mkfs</B> is run. Attempting to format a mounted file system can lead to system instability, unrecoverable data corruption, or kernel panics. Unmount the device first using the <B>umount</B> command.<br><br><B>mkfs</B> typically requires root privileges (or <B>sudo</B>) to execute, as it modifies low-level device structures.


title: USAGE EXAMPLE
content:
To create an <I>ext4</I> file system on the first partition of the second disk, <I>/dev/sdb1</I>:<br><br><B>sudo mkfs -t ext4 /dev/sdb1</B><br><br>To create an <I>XFS</I> file system with a label "<I>MY_DATA</I>" and force overwrite on <I>/dev/sdc2</I> (often invoked directly through <B>mkfs.xfs</B> for specific options):<br><br><B>sudo mkfs.xfs -L MY_DATA -f /dev/sdc2</B>


title: IDENTIFYING THE CORRECT DEVICE
content:
Before running <B>mkfs</B>, it's critical to correctly identify the target block device to prevent accidental data loss. Commands like <B>lsblk</B>, <B>fdisk -l</B>, <B>parted -l</B>, or inspecting the <I>/dev/</I> directory can help list and identify available disks and partitions. Always ensure the device is unmounted before formatting.


title: HISTORY
content:
<B>mkfs</B> has been a fundamental command in Unix and Linux systems for decades. Initially, each file system type had its own dedicated utility (e.g., <B>mkfs.minix</B>, <B>mkfs.ext</B>). Over time, a generic <B>mkfs</B> wrapper was developed to provide a unified interface, dispatching to the appropriate file system-specific tool based on the <I>-t</I> option or by symlinking <B>mkfs.<I>type</I></B> to <B>mkfs</B>. This modular design allowed for easier integration of new file system types without changing the core <B>mkfs</B> command. Its evolution mirrors the development of various Linux file systems, from the early <I>ext</I> family to modern ones like <I>xfs</I> and <I>btrfs</I>.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
<B>fdisk</B>(8), <B>parted</B>(8), <B>mount</B>(8), <B>umount</B>(8), <B>fsck</B>(8), <B>mkfs.ext4</B>(8), <B>mkfs.xfs</B>(8), <B>lsblk</B>(8)


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>&lt;device&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;One or more block devices (e.g., /dev/sda, /dev/nvme0n1) to be formatted as part of the bcachefs filesystem. Multiple devices will be configured for multi-device operation based on internal defaults or explicit options.<br><br><b><b>-f</b>, <b>--force</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force the creation of the filesystem, overwriting any existing filesystem or data on the specified devices without prompting.<br><br><b><b>-L</b> <i>&lt;label&gt;</i>, <b>--label</b> <i>&lt;label&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set a human-readable label for the new bcachefs filesystem. This label can be used to identify and mount the filesystem.<br><br><b><b>-U</b> <i>&lt;uuid&gt;</i>, <b>--uuid</b> <i>&lt;uuid&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set a specific Universally Unique Identifier (UUID) for the new bcachefs filesystem. If not specified, a random UUID will be generated.<br><br><b><b>-b</b> <i>&lt;size&gt;</i>, <b>--block-size</b> <i>&lt;size&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the default data block size for the filesystem. Common values include 4k, 8k, 16k, etc. Larger block sizes can improve performance for large files but may waste space for small files.<br><br><b><b>-c</b> <i>&lt;alg&gt;</i>, <b>--compression</b> <i>&lt;alg&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the default compression algorithm for data written to the filesystem. Supported algorithms often include <i>lz4</i>, <i>zstd</i>, and <i>none</i>. This can be overridden per file or directory.<br><br><b><b>-C</b> <i>&lt;alg&gt;</i>, <b>--checksum</b> <i>&lt;alg&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the default checksum algorithm for data and metadata integrity. Common choices include <i>crc32c</i>, <i>xxh3</i>, and <i>none</i>.<br><br><b><b>-R</b> <i>&lt;num&gt;</i>, <b>--replicas</b> <i>&lt;num&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the default number of data replicas across devices. This effectively configures the filesystem's RAID level for data, e.g., 2 for RAID1-like mirroring.<br><br><b><b>--foreground</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Run the formatting process in the foreground, rather than daemonizing. Useful for scripting or debugging.<br><br><b><b>--wipe-bcache</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Wipe any existing bcache (the original caching layer) metadata from the specified devices. Useful when reusing devices that were previously part of a bcache setup.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <i>mkfs.bcachefs</i> command initializes and formats one or more block devices to create a new <i>bcachefs</i> filesystem. <i>bcachefs</i> is a modern copy-on-write (CoW) filesystem designed for high performance, scalability, and robust data integrity, developed by Kent Overstreet. It integrates concepts from ZFS and Btrfs, offering advanced features like caching, snapshots, checksumming, and various RAID levels. When invoked, <i>mkfs.bcachefs</i> sets up the fundamental on-disk structures, metadata, and default parameters for the filesystem, preparing the devices for data storage. It's crucial for establishing the initial state of a <i>bcachefs</i> volume before it can be mounted and used.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>bcachefs</i> is a relatively new and actively developed filesystem. While it has undergone extensive testing, its stability and feature set may evolve. Users should ensure they are running a sufficiently new kernel that supports bcachefs. Data recovery tools and advanced administration utilities might be less mature compared to older, well-established filesystems.


title: DEVICE ROLES AND TIERS
content:
<i>bcachefs</i> supports different device roles and tiers within a single filesystem, allowing users to combine fast SSDs for metadata and/or caching with slower HDDs for bulk data storage. While <i>mkfs.bcachefs</i> initializes the basic structure, advanced device role assignment and tiering are typically managed after creation using <i>bcachefs</i> command-line tools.


title: ONLINE RESIZING AND FEATURES
content:
Like other modern CoW filesystems, <i>bcachefs</i> is designed to support online filesystem resizing (adding/removing devices) and enabling/disabling certain features (like compression or encryption) after initial creation, offering significant flexibility in managing storage volumes.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>bcachefs</i> was created by Kent Overstreet, the original author of the Linux kernel's <i>bcache</i> caching layer. Development began around 2015 with the goal of creating a modern copy-on-write filesystem that combined the best features of ZFS and Btrfs with advanced caching capabilities directly integrated into the filesystem itself, rather than as a separate layer. It has been a long-running project, meticulously developed and refined, and is poised for inclusion in the mainline Linux kernel, marking a significant milestone in its journey.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mkfs.bfs</b> [-v] [-F] [-S] [-N <i>number</i>] [-V <i>volume_name</i>] <i>device</i> [<i>blocks</i>]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable verbose output, showing progress and details during filesystem creation.<br><br><b>-F</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force the creation of the filesystem, even if a filesystem already exists on the specified device.<br><br><b>-S</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Scramble the inode numbers. This option was sometimes used for compatibility with older Linux kernels that had issues with sequential inode assignments.<br><br><b>-N <i>number</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the number of inodes to allocate for the filesystem. If not specified, a default based on the device size is used.<br><br><b>-V <i>volume_name</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Assign a volume name to the filesystem. The volume name can be up to 16 characters long.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mkfs.bfs</b> command is used to create a <i>Boot File System (BFS)</i> on a specified block device. BFS is a very simple, flat, and compact filesystem primarily designed for small boot partitions, such as those used by early Linux bootloaders or for initial RAM disks (initrd). It was chosen for its minimal resource requirements and ease of implementation. <br><br>Unlike more complex filesystems like Ext4 or XFS, BFS lacks features such as journaling, true directory hierarchies (all files reside in a single flat directory), and robust error recovery. It also has a fixed size determined at creation time and a limited number of inodes. Due to these limitations, BFS is rarely used for general-purpose storage and has largely been superseded by other filesystems even for boot partitions. Its usage today is mostly confined to specific legacy systems or highly constrained embedded environments where simplicity and small footprint are paramount.


title: CAVEATS
content:
BFS is a very basic filesystem with significant limitations: it does not support journaling, lacks a true directory hierarchy (it's flat), and has a fixed, relatively small maximum size and inode count. It is considered deprecated for most modern uses and is primarily found in legacy boot setups or highly specialized embedded systems. Data integrity is less robust compared to modern filesystems.


title: FLAT STRUCTURE
content:
Unlike hierarchical filesystems, BFS stores all files in a single, flat directory. There are no subdirectories, which simplifies its structure but limits its organizational capabilities.


title: TYPICAL USAGE
content:
Due to its simplicity and limitations, <b>mkfs.bfs</b> is almost exclusively used for creating filesystems on floppy disks or very small partitions dedicated to boot loaders (e.g., LILO) or initial RAM disk images (initrd) in older Linux distributions. It is not suitable for general-purpose storage.


title: HISTORY
content:
The Boot File System (BFS) originated from System V Release 4 (SVR4) UNIX. It was adopted into the Linux kernel for its simplicity and small footprint, making it suitable for early boot stages and initial RAM disks. While once relevant for very small boot partitions, its use has significantly declined as more capable and robust filesystems like <i>ext2</i> and <i>ext4</i> became standard even for bootloaders. It remains part of the <i>util-linux</i> package for historical compatibility.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-L, --label <i>&lt;LABEL&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the filesystem label. This label can be used to identify and mount the filesystem.<br><br><b>-U, --uuid <i>&lt;UUID&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the Universally Unique Identifier (UUID) for the filesystem. If not specified, a random UUID will be generated.<br><br><b>-d, --data <i>&lt;profile&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the profile for data allocation. Common profiles include <i>single</i>, <i>DUP</i>, <i>RAID0</i>, <i>RAID1</i>, <i>RAID10</i>, <i>RAID5</i>, and <i>RAID6</i>. Default is <i>single</i> for a single device.<br><br><b>-m, --metadata <i>&lt;profile&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the profile for metadata allocation. Common profiles are <i>single</i>, <i>DUP</i>, <i>RAID0</i>, <i>RAID1</i>, <i>RAID10</i>, <i>RAID5</i>, and <i>RAID6</i>. Default is <i>DUP</i> for a single device for robustness.<br><br><b>-O, --features <i>&lt;feature_list&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable specific filesystem features during creation. Features are comma-separated (e.g., <i>-O mixed-bg</i>). Use <i>list-all</i> to see available features.<br><br><b>-s, --sectorsize <i>&lt;SIZE&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the sector size (physical block size) of the device, typically 4k or 512b. Defaults to the page size of the system or 4k for optimal performance.<br><br><b>-n, --nodesize <i>&lt;SIZE&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the B-tree node size, which impacts how data and metadata are stored. Defaults to 16KB for most use cases.<br><br><b>-f, --force</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Force the creation of the filesystem, even if the device already contains a recognized filesystem or partition table. Use with caution.<br><br><b>-q, --quiet</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress most of the output messages during filesystem creation.<br><br><b>-V, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print the <b>mkfs.btrfs</b> version and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mkfs.btrfs</b> command is used to format a block device or multiple devices into a Btrfs filesystem. It initializes the necessary metadata structures, including the root tree, extent tree, and checksum tree, enabling Btrfs's advanced features. These features include copy-on-write (CoW), snapshots, subvolumes, checksumming for data and metadata integrity, and built-in RAID capabilities. When executed, <b>mkfs.btrfs</b> will overwrite all existing data on the specified device(s), so caution is advised. It automatically sets up default profiles for data and metadata (e.g., single for data, DUP for metadata on a single device) but allows explicit configuration of redundancy levels. This utility is a fundamental part of managing Btrfs, a modern, feature-rich filesystem for Linux.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Using <b>mkfs.btrfs</b> will irrevocably erase all data on the target device(s). Always double-check the specified device name. While <b>mkfs.btrfs</b> can create multi-device filesystems with RAID profiles, managing existing RAID arrays (e.g., adding/removing devices) is handled by the <i>btrfs device</i> subcommand, not <b>mkfs.btrfs</b>. The Btrfs kernel module must be loaded to mount and utilize the created filesystem.


title: DEFAULT PROFILES
content:
For a single device, <b>mkfs.btrfs</b> defaults to a <i>single</i> profile for data and a <i>DUP</i> profile for metadata. The <i>DUP</i> metadata profile on a single device provides an extra layer of protection against metadata corruption by storing two copies of all metadata blocks.


title: CHECKSUMS
content:
Btrfs inherently uses checksums for both data and metadata. This feature is enabled by default with <b>mkfs.btrfs</b> and ensures data integrity by detecting silent data corruption. If corruption is detected, Btrfs can often recover data from a redundant copy if available (e.g., with DUP or RAID profiles).


title: INITIAL SUBVOLUME
content:
Upon creation, <b>mkfs.btrfs</b> establishes an initial top-level subvolume, typically with ID 5. This serves as the default mount point and can be used to create additional subvolumes and snapshots, which are core features of Btrfs's flexible storage management.


title: HISTORY
content:
Btrfs development began at Oracle in 2007, aiming to create a next-generation filesystem for Linux, focusing on scalability, data integrity, and advanced features. The initial version of Btrfs was merged into the Linux kernel mainline in 2.6.29 (2009). <b>mkfs.btrfs</b>, along with other user-space utilities, is part of the <i>btrfs-progs</i> package, which has continuously evolved with the kernel module to provide robust filesystem management. It gained significant adoption and is considered stable for many production environments, though active development continues to refine features and performance.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-b <I>block_size</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the block size in bytes for the filesystem. Must be a power of 2 from 4096 to 65536. Default is 4096.<br><br><b>-z <I>algorithm</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the compression algorithm to use. Supported options include <i>lz4</i> (default), <i>lz4hc</i>, and <i>zstd</i>.<br><br><b>-zl <I>level</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the compression level specifically for the ZSTD algorithm. The default is 10, with a typical range from 1 to 22.<br><br><b>-C <I>chunk_size</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the chunk size for uncompressed data blocks. The default value is 16KB.<br><br><b>-x <I>policy</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the extended attribute (xattr) policy. Options are <i>inline</i> (default), where xattrs are stored with data, or <i>none</i>, to disable them.<br><br><b>-E <I>options</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides extended options, such as <i>legacy-compression</i> for compatibility with older kernels (< 5.16) or <i>no-inline-data</i> to prevent small files from being inlined.<br><br><b>-o <I>offset</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the byte offset where the filesystem image should start within the output file.<br><br><b>-c <I>nthreads</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the number of parallel threads to use during the compression process, speeding up image creation.<br><br><b>-L <I>volume_label</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Assigns a human-readable volume label to the EROFS filesystem.<br><br><b>-U <I>UUID</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the Universally Unique Identifier (UUID) for the filesystem, a standard identifier.<br><br><b>-G <I>GUID</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the GUID (Globally Unique Identifier) of the filesystem, typically used in GPT partition tables.<br><br><b>-m</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables metadata deduplication, which can further reduce the overall size of the EROFS image.<br><br><b>-D</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a dry run, checking command parameters and input without actually generating the filesystem image.<br><br><b>-s</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints detailed statistics about the created EROFS filesystem image, including size and compression ratios.<br><br><b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version information of the <b>mkfs.erofs</b> utility.<br><br><b>-h</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a brief help message and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mkfs.erofs</b> command is a utility used to create an EROFS (Enhanced Read-Only File System) image from a specified input directory. EROFS is a lightweight, high-performance read-only filesystem developed by Huawei and integrated into the Linux kernel since version 5.4. It is primarily designed for scenarios where fast access and efficient storage are critical, such as embedded systems, Android devices, and live CDs/DVDs. <br><br><b>mkfs.erofs</b> processes the contents of a source directory, including files, directories, symbolic links, and extended attributes, and packs them into a single EROFS image file. It supports various compression algorithms, notably LZ4 (default) for speed and ZSTD for higher compression ratios, allowing users to balance performance and storage efficiency. The tool also provides options for managing block sizes, metadata, and data integrity with checksums, making it a robust solution for static system partitions.


title: CAVEATS
content:
EROFS is strictly a <i>read-only</i> filesystem. Once an image is created, its contents cannot be modified or written to. <br>Mounting an EROFS image requires a Linux kernel with EROFS support, which was merged starting with version 5.4. <br>For optimal compatibility or to use specific features on older kernels (e.g., pre-5.16), certain extended options like <i>-E legacy-compression</i> might be necessary.


title: COMPRESSION ALGORITHMS
content:
<b>mkfs.erofs</b> offers a choice of compression algorithms. LZ4 is renowned for its extremely fast decompression speeds, making it ideal for scenarios where read performance is paramount, even if it yields slightly larger file sizes. ZSTD, on the other hand, provides significantly higher compression ratios, leading to smaller image sizes, at the cost of slightly increased decompression overhead. The selection depends on the application's specific balance between storage space and runtime performance.


title: PAGED-CHUNK COMPRESSION
content:
EROFS employs a unique 'Paged-Chunk' compression model. Instead of compressing individual files, it divides files into fixed-size chunks (e.g., 16KB by default) and compresses these chunks independently. This design allows for efficient random access to compressed data, as only the relevant chunk needs to be decompressed, improving read performance for large files.


title: HISTORY
content:
EROFS (Enhanced Read-Only File System) was initially developed by Huawei to serve as a high-performance, compact read-only filesystem alternative to existing solutions like Squashfs. Its development focused on optimizing boot times, decompression performance, and storage efficiency for devices such as Android smartphones and embedded systems. EROFS was officially integrated into the Linux kernel starting with version 5.4 in late 2019 and has since gained increasing traction for its robust design and efficient characteristics.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-n VOLUME_LABEL, --label VOLUME_LABEL</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the volume label for the new filesystem.<br><br><b>-s CLUSTER_SIZE_BYTES, --cluster-size CLUSTER_SIZE_BYTES</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the cluster size in bytes. This determines the smallest unit of disk space allocated to a file.<br><br><b>-S SECTOR_SIZE_BYTES, --sector-size SECTOR_SIZE_BYTES</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the sector size in bytes. This typically matches the physical sector size of the device.<br><br><b>-C CLUSTER_SIZE_KIB, --cluster-size-kb CLUSTER_SIZE_KIB</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the cluster size in KiB. A convenient alternative to -s.<br><br><b>-f, --force</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces the creation of the filesystem, even if the device is not empty or warnings are present.<br><br><b>-r RESERVE_SECTORS, --reserve-sectors RESERVE_SECTORS</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the number of reserved sectors at the beginning of the partition.<br><br><b>-L LOCALE, --locale LOCALE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the locale for case-folding operations, influencing how filenames are compared.<br><br><b>-c, --check</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Checks the device for bad blocks before creating the filesystem.<br><br><b>-v, --verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, printing more information about the process.<br><br><b>-q, --quiet</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses most output messages, running quietly.<br><br><b>-X, --no-action</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a dry run; shows what would be done without actually writing to the device.<br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits.<br><br><b>-V, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays version information and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
mkfs.exfat is a utility used to format a storage device or partition with the <i>exFAT</i> (Extended File Allocation Table) filesystem. exFAT is a proprietary filesystem developed by Microsoft, optimized for flash memory devices like USB drives and SD cards, and is widely supported across various operating systems. It was designed to overcome the limitations of older FAT32 filesystems, particularly regarding maximum file size (FAT32 has a 4GB limit) and partition size, supporting much larger volumes and individual files. When executed, mkfs.exfat initializes the necessary data structures on the specified device, including the boot sector, FAT tables, and root directory, effectively making it ready for data storage. Users must exercise caution as this command will <b>destroy all existing data</b> on the target device. It is typically used for creating portable storage solutions that require broad compatibility.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>Data Loss:</b> Using mkfs.exfat will <b>erase all data</b> on the specified device or partition. Ensure you have backed up any critical data before proceeding.<br><br><b>Proprietary Nature:</b> <i>exFAT</i> is a Microsoft-patented filesystem. While Linux distributions generally provide good support via exfatprogs, ensure your kernel and userspace tools are up-to-date for optimal compatibility and performance.<br><br><b>Permissions:</b> After formatting, <i>exFAT</i> filesystems do not inherently support standard Unix-like permissions (owner, group, others) as they are not POSIX-compliant. Permissions are often handled at the mount level (e.g., umask, uid, gid mount options).


title: CHOOSING CLUSTER SIZE
content:
The cluster size significantly impacts performance and storage efficiency. A smaller cluster size wastes less space on small files but can lead to more fragmentation and slower performance for large files. A larger cluster size can improve performance for large files but wastes more space on small files. For general use with varied file sizes, the default (often 32KB or 128KB, depending on device size) is usually a good compromise.


title: DEVICE IDENTIFICATION
content:
Always <b>double-check the device name</b> (e.g., /dev/sdb1) before running mkfs.exfat to avoid accidentally formatting the wrong drive, including your system's primary disk. Use commands like <i>lsblk</i> or <i>fdisk -l</i> to identify the correct device.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <i>exFAT</i> filesystem was introduced by Microsoft in 2006. Initial Linux support for <i>exFAT</i> was primarily through FUSE-based solutions (like fuse-exfat). However, due to the proprietary nature and patent concerns, native kernel support was delayed. In 2019, Microsoft publicly released the <i>exFAT</i> specification and joined the Open Invention Network (OIN), alleviating patent concerns. This paved the way for robust, native kernel support for <i>exFAT</i> in Linux, which was merged into the Linux kernel version 5.4. The mkfs.exfat utility is typically provided by the exfatprogs package, which implements userspace tools for managing <i>exFAT</i> filesystems, building upon this native kernel support. This development made <i>exFAT</i> a first-class citizen in the Linux ecosystem, enabling seamless compatibility with Windows and macOS for flash drives and external storage.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-l <i>&lt;label&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the volume label for the file system.<br><br><b>-s <i>&lt;segment_size&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the size of each segment in bytes (e.g., <i>'2M'</i>, <i>'4G'</i>). Must be a power of 2 and <i>&gt;= 2MB</i>.<br><br><b>-S <i>&lt;sector_size&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the sector size in bytes. Must be a power of 2 and <i>&gt;= 512 bytes</i>.<br><br><b>-r <i>&lt;reserved_blocks&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the number of reserved blocks at the beginning of the partition.<br><br><b>-f</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces the overwrite of an existing file system on the device.<br><br><b>-q</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables quiet mode, suppressing most output.<br><br><b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose mode, showing more detailed output during creation.<br><br><b>-O <i>&lt;feature&gt;[,...]</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables specific F2FS features like <i>encrypt</i>, <i>extra_attr</i>, <i>compression</i>, <i>inode_checksum</i>, <i>sb_checksum</i>, <i>casefold</i>, etc.<br><br><b>-U <i>&lt;UUID&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates the file system with the specified UUID.<br><br><b>-z <i>&lt;0|1&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables (<i>0</i>) or enables (<i>1</i>) the z-prefix mode, which optimizes space for zero-length files.<br><br><b>-c <i>&lt;0|1&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables (<i>0</i>) or enables (<i>1</i>) cold/hot segment mapping for better block allocation.<br><br><b>-i <i>&lt;inode_count&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the number of preallocated inodes.<br><br><b>-w <i>&lt;0|1&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables (<i>0</i>) or enables (<i>1</i>) the discard (TRIM) feature, issuing discards to the underlying block device.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
mkfs.f2fs is a utility used to create an F2FS (Flash-Friendly File System) on a block device, such as a flash drive, SSD, or eMMC. F2FS is a log-structured file system developed by Samsung, specifically designed to optimize for NAND flash memory characteristics. Its design aims to mitigate the wear-out problems of flash memory and improve performance by employing techniques like a log-structured approach, configurable block and segment sizes, and advanced garbage collection. mkfs.f2fs allows users to specify various parameters during formatting, including segment size, sector size, label, and the number of reserved blocks, enabling fine-tuning for different flash devices and usage scenarios. It's crucial to understand that running mkfs.f2fs will erase all data on the specified device, making it ready for a new F2FS partition.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Running <b>mkfs.f2fs</b> will <i>erase all data</i> on the target device. Always back up important data before use.<br>F2FS is optimized for NAND flash devices. While it can be used on other block devices, its benefits might be less pronounced.<br>Requires <i>root privileges</i> to operate on block devices.


title: F2FS DESIGN PRINCIPLES
content:
F2FS is designed with a <i>log-structured file system</i> approach, which means it writes data sequentially to a log-like structure. This minimizes random writes, which are costly for flash memory. It employs techniques like <i>write-ahead logging</i>, <i>flexible address mapping</i>, and <i>adaptive logging</i> to optimize performance and extend flash device lifespan.


title: USE CASES
content:
Primarily used in <i>Android devices</i>, embedded systems, and other environments where flash storage endurance and performance are critical. It can also be a viable option for SSDs in general-purpose Linux desktops/servers if its specific optimizations are desired.


title: HISTORY
content:
F2FS (Flash-Friendly File System) was developed by Samsung Electronics for Linux kernels, primarily for flash memory devices like SSDs, eMMC, and SD cards. It was first merged into the Linux kernel in version 3.8 in 2013. <b>mkfs.f2fs</b> is part of the <i>f2fs-tools</i> userspace package, which provides utilities for managing F2FS file systems. Its development was driven by the need for a file system specifically designed to handle the unique characteristics of NAND flash memory, such as block-level wear, limited erase cycles, and efficient garbage collection, which traditional file systems often struggle with. F2FS adopts a log-structured approach to minimize write amplification and improve endurance, making it a popular choice for Android devices and embedded systems.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<pre>mkfs.fat [<i>OPTIONS</i>] <i>DEVICE</i> [<i>BLOCKS</i>]</pre><i>DEVICE</i> specifies the block device (e.g., /dev/sdb1) to format.<br><i>BLOCKS</i> (optional) specifies the number of blocks on the device.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-F <i>fat-type</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the FAT type (12, 16, or 32). If omitted, <code>mkfs.fat</code> attempts to detect the optimal type based on partition size.<br><br><b>-s <i>sectors-per-cluster</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the number of logical sectors per cluster. This defines the cluster size (e.g., 8 for 4KB clusters with 512-byte sectors), affecting disk space efficiency and performance. Common values are powers of 2.<br><br><b>-S <i>sector-size</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the logical sector size in bytes (e.g., 512, 1024, 2048, 4096). Defaults to 512 bytes.<br><br><b>-n <i>volume-name</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the volume label (up to 11 characters for FAT12/16, up to 11 bytes in Unicode for FAT32).<br><br><b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, displaying more information during the formatting process.<br><br><b>-I</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not prompt for confirmation. Useful for scripting, but dangerous if the wrong device is specified.<br><br><b>-c</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Checks for bad blocks on the device before creating the filesystem. This process can be time-consuming.<br><br><b>-r <i>max-root-entries</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the maximum number of root directory entries for FAT12/16 filesystems. Ignored for FAT32.<br><br><b>-D</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates a DOS 4.0 compatible filesystem. This might be needed for very old systems.<br><br><b>-m <i>message-file</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a file containing a message to be stored in the boot sector. Useful for custom boot messages.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<code>mkfs.fat</code> is a command-line utility used to <i>create</i>, or <i>format</i>, a FAT (File Allocation Table) filesystem on a specified block device. It is part of the <b>dosfstools</b> package, which provides utilities for managing FAT filesystems under Linux. This command is essential for preparing storage devices like USB flash drives, SD cards, and external hard drives for use with operating systems that rely on FAT, including Windows, macOS, and various embedded systems, due to its widespread compatibility.<br><br>When <code>mkfs.fat</code> is executed, it initializes the device by writing the necessary filesystem structures: the boot sector, File Allocation Tables (FATs), the root directory, and the data area. It can create FAT12, FAT16, or FAT32 filesystems, automatically choosing the most appropriate type based on the partition size unless explicitly specified. The command offers various options to customize the filesystem properties, such as the volume label, cluster size, and the maximum number of root directory entries, allowing users to tailor the filesystem to specific needs or compatibility requirements. It effectively erases all existing data on the target device, making it crucial to ensure the correct device is selected before execution.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<I>Data Loss</I>: Executing <code>mkfs.fat</code> will irrevocably erase all existing data on the target device. Always double-check the device path (e.g., <code>/dev/sdb1</code>) to avoid accidental data destruction on critical partitions.<br><br><I>Root Privileges</I>: This command typically requires superuser (root) privileges to directly access and write to block devices. Use <code>sudo</code> or run as root.<br><br><I>Mounted Devices</I>: Never run <code>mkfs.fat</code> on a device or partition that is currently mounted. Doing so can lead to filesystem corruption, data loss, or system instability. Always unmount the device first (e.g., <code>sudo umount /dev/sdb1</code>).<br><br><I>FAT Limitations</I>: While widely compatible, FAT filesystems have limitations. FAT12 and FAT16 have significant partition size limits and file size limits (2GB or 4GB for FAT16). FAT32 supports larger partitions (up to 2TB) but still has a 4GB maximum file size limit for individual files. For larger files or partitions, other filesystems like exFAT, ext4, or NTFS might be more suitable.


title: USAGE EXAMPLES
content:
Here are some common usage scenarios for <code>mkfs.fat</code>:<br><br><b>1. Basic FAT32 format:</b><br><pre>sudo mkfs.fat -F 32 /dev/sdb1</pre>This command formats the partition <code>/dev/sdb1</code> as a FAT32 filesystem. <code>mkfs.fat</code> will usually default to FAT32 for larger partitions.<br><br><b>2. Format with a volume label:</b><br><pre>sudo mkfs.fat -F 32 -n MY_USB_DRIVE /dev/sdb1</pre>This command formats <code>/dev/sdb1</code> as FAT32 and assigns the volume label <I>MY_USB_DRIVE</I>.<br><br><b>3. Create FAT16 filesystem with custom cluster size:</b><br><pre>sudo mkfs.fat -F 16 -s 16 /dev/sdc2</pre>This formats <code>/dev/sdc2</code> as FAT16, setting the cluster size to 16 sectors (8KB if sector size is 512 bytes). This can be useful for specific applications or older devices that expect a particular cluster size.<br><br><b>4. Format and check for bad blocks:</b><br><pre>sudo mkfs.fat -c /dev/sdd1</pre>This command formats <code>/dev/sdd1</code> with the default FAT type and performs a scan for bad blocks during the process. This can significantly increase the formatting time but helps ensure data integrity.


title: FAT FILESYSTEM TYPES
content:
The FAT filesystem family includes three main variants, each with different capabilities and limitations:<br><br><b>FAT12</b>: The oldest version, primarily used for very small disks (e.g., floppy disks) due to its limited partition size (up to 32MB) and file size.<br><br><b>FAT16</b>: An evolution of FAT12, commonly used for larger partitions (up to 2GB or 4GB depending on sector size and cluster size). It has a 2GB/4GB maximum individual file size limit.<br><br><b>FAT32</b>: The most common FAT variant today, supporting much larger partitions (up to 2TB) and still maintaining wide compatibility. However, it retains the 4GB maximum individual file size limit, which can be a constraint for modern media like large video files.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <code>mkfs.fat</code> command is part of the <b>dosfstools</b> package, which provides a set of utilities for creating, checking, and maintaining FAT filesystems on Linux. Historically, its functionality was often provided by symlinks such as <b>mkfs.msdos</b> or <b>mkfs.vfat</b>, which pointed to the same underlying executable. The name <code>mkfs.fat</code> is now widely adopted as the canonical command, reflecting its capability to create all variants of the FAT filesystem (FAT12, FAT16, and FAT32). Its development has been driven by the need for robust and compatible tools to interact with storage devices that commonly use FAT, particularly for interoperability with Microsoft Windows systems and embedded devices. The command maintains a long-standing presence in Linux distributions, evolving with improvements in FAT specifications and hardware capabilities.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-q</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Quiet mode</i>. Suppresses most output except for errors.<br><br><b>-V</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Print version information</i> and exit.<br><br><b>-c</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Check device for bad blocks</i> before creating the file system. This option might take a significant amount of time.<br><br><b>-r ratio</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Reserved block count ratio</i>. Specifies the percentage of blocks reserved for use by the file system. The ratio must be between 0 and 100. This is typically used to ensure that the file system can still be used by privileged processes even when non-privileged users have filled it.<br><br><b>-s size</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;This option is <i>ignored</i> by <b>mkfs.jfs</b> as JFS always uses a fixed block size of 4KB. It is provided for compatibility with other mkfs commands but has no effect.<br><br><b>-L label</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Set the volume label</i> for the new file system. The label can be up to 16 characters long.<br><br><b>device</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The <i>block device</i> (e.g., /dev/sdb1) or file that will be formatted as a JFS file system. This argument is <i>mandatory</i>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mkfs.jfs</b> command is used to build a new <i>Journaled File System (JFS)</i> on a specified device, typically a disk partition or a file that will act as a block device. JFS is a robust and scalable file system developed by IBM, known for its journaling capabilities which help maintain file system consistency and data integrity, especially after system crashes or unexpected power loss. <br><br>When executed, <b>mkfs.jfs</b> irrevocably erases all existing data on the target device and initializes the necessary JFS data structures, including the superblock, allocation group descriptors, and inode tables. It prepares the device so that it can be mounted and used for storing files and directories. Although not as prevalent as Ext4 or XFS on Linux systems today, JFS offers a stable and reliable option for specific use cases, inheriting its design principles from high-performance enterprise systems like IBM AIX and OS/2.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Using <b>mkfs.jfs</b> will <i>permanently erase all data</i> on the specified device. Always double-check the 'device' argument before execution to prevent accidental data loss. JFS typically uses a fixed block size of 4KB, unlike some other filesystems that allow customization. While stable, JFS development on Linux is less active compared to other modern journaling filesystems like Ext4, XFS, or Btrfs.


title: FIXED BLOCK SIZE
content:
Unlike many other file systems, JFS uses a <i>fixed block size of 4KB</i>. The <b>mkfs.jfs</b> command does not provide an option to change this, and any `-s` option provided will be ignored.


title: ROOT PRIVILEGES
content:
To execute <b>mkfs.jfs</b> successfully, you typically need <i>root privileges</i>, as it operates directly on block devices.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <i>Journaled File System (JFS)</i> originated from IBM's AIX operating system in the early 1990s as JFS1, later evolving into JFS2 for OS/2 Warp and subsequent AIX versions. It was designed to provide high performance and data integrity for demanding enterprise environments. The Linux port of JFS2 began in the late 1990s, with IBM releasing the source code under the GPL, leading to its inclusion in the Linux kernel mainline. The <b>mkfs.jfs</b> command, part of the <i>jfsutils</i> package, is the primary tool for preparing devices with this file system format on Linux. While once a prominent alternative, its usage has somewhat declined on Linux in favor of newer, actively developed filesystems, but it remains a robust and supported option.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<code>mkfs.minix [ <b>-c</b> | <b>-l</b> ] [ <b>-n</b> <I>number-of-inodes</I> ] [ <b>-i</b> ] [ <b>-z</b> ] <I>device</I> [ <I>blocks</I> ]</code>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-c</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Check the device for bad blocks before creating the filesystem. Bad blocks will be marked and not used.<br><br><b><b>-l</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;List bad blocks on the device instead of creating a filesystem. This option causes <code>mkfs.minix</code> to only scan and report.<br><br><b><b>-n</b> <I>number-of-inodes</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the exact number of inodes to create. If omitted, <code>mkfs.minix</code> automatically determines the number of inodes based on the number of blocks, usually 1 inode for every 16 blocks.<br><br><b><b>-i</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not prompt for confirmation before proceeding. Use with extreme caution as this can overwrite important data without warning.<br><br><b><b>-z</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Zero-fill the entire device before creating the filesystem. This securely erases any previous data on the device and can also be used as a quick wipe method.<br><br><b><I>device</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The special file representing the block device or partition to be formatted (e.g., <I>/dev/fd0</I>, <I>/dev/sdb1</I>).<br><br><b><I>blocks</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The total number of blocks on the device to be used for the filesystem. If omitted, <code>mkfs.minix</code> automatically determines the device size and uses all available blocks.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<p><code>mkfs.minix</code> is a command-line utility used to format a storage device (like a disk partition or floppy disk) with the Minix filesystem structure. Originally developed by Linus Torvalds for the Minix operating system, it was a precursor to Linux's own filesystems. It sets up the boot block, super block, inode tables, and data blocks, preparing the device for data storage.</p><br><p>While historically significant, Minix filesystems have limitations in size and features compared to modern filesystems like Ext4, making them less common in contemporary Linux systems. It's often used for educational purposes or on very small embedded systems where its simplicity and compact nature are advantageous.</p>


title: CAVEATS
content:
Minix filesystems have significant limitations compared to modern filesystems. They are hard-limited to 65536 blocks (typically 64MB if using 1KB block size) and 65536 inodes. This makes them unsuitable for most contemporary storage requirements and large datasets.


title: FILESYSTEM STRUCTURE
content:
The Minix filesystem is renowned for its simple and transparent structure. It comprises a boot block, a superblock (containing vital filesystem metadata), an inode bitmap, a zone (data block) bitmap, an inode table, and data zones. This clear organization made it an excellent learning tool for understanding basic filesystem concepts and facilitated early operating system development.


title: USAGE CONTEXT
content:
While largely superseded by modern, feature-rich filesystems, <code>mkfs.minix</code> still finds niche applications. It is frequently used in educational settings to demonstrate fundamental filesystem principles, on extremely small or resource-constrained embedded systems where its minimal overhead is beneficial, or for historical purposes when dealing with legacy Minix systems.


title: HISTORY
content:
<p><code>mkfs.minix</code> holds a significant place in Linux history. It was authored by Linus Torvalds himself, as the Minix operating system and its filesystem were instrumental in the early development of Linux. This command was the primary utility for preparing storage in the nascent Linux environment before the creation and widespread adoption of more advanced filesystems like ext2. Its simple design and functionality were well-suited for the limited hardware resources and development focus of the early 1990s.</p>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-c</b>, <I>--check</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Check the device for bad blocks before creating the filesystem.<br><br><b><b>-F</b>, <I>--fat-type</I>={12|16|32}</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the FAT type to be created (FAT12, FAT16, or FAT32).<br><br><b><b>-I</b>, <I>--no-id</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Don't create an ID in the boot sector. Useful for certain embedded systems.<br><br><b><b>-l</b>, <I>--label</I> <I>LABEL</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the volume label for the new filesystem. Max 11 characters.<br><br><b><b>-n</b>, <I>--cluster-size</I> <I>N</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the cluster size in kilobytes. Overrides <I>--sectors-per-cluster</I>.<br><br><b><b>-r</b>, <I>--root-dir-entries</I> <I>N</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the number of root directory entries for FAT12/16 filesystems.<br><br><b><b>-s</b>, <I>--sectors-per-cluster</I> <I>N</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the number of sectors per cluster. Must be a power of two.<br><br><b><b>-S</b>, <I>--sector-size</I> <I>N</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the logical sector size in bytes (e.g., 512, 1024, 2048, 4096).<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <I>--verbose</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable verbose output, showing more details about the filesystem creation process.<br><br><b><b>-h</b>, <I>--help</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display help information and exit.<br><br><b><b>-V</b>, <I>--version</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display version information and exit.<br><br><b><I>device</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The block special device (e.g., <I>/dev/sdb1</I>) or file to be formatted. This is a mandatory argument.<br><br><b><I>blocks</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The number of blocks to be used for the filesystem. If omitted, the entire device will be used.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <I>mkfs.vfat</I> command is a utility used to build a FAT (File Allocation Table) filesystem on a specified device, typically a disk partition or a file that will act as a loop device.<br><br>It is part of the <I>dosfstools</I> package and primarily supports VFAT (Virtual FAT), which extends standard FAT12/FAT16/FAT32 to include support for long filenames. This makes it ideal for formatting removable media like USB flash drives, SD cards, and external hard drives, ensuring broad compatibility across various operating systems such as Windows, macOS, and Linux.<br><br>Users can customize various filesystem parameters, including the volume label, cluster size, number of FATs, and the number of root directory entries, tailoring the filesystem to specific needs or device characteristics.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Using <I>mkfs.vfat</I> will permanently erase all existing data on the specified <I>device</I>. Ensure you select the correct device to avoid irreversible data loss. The command typically requires root privileges to operate on block devices.<br><br>FAT filesystems, while highly compatible, have inherent limitations compared to modern filesystems, such as a maximum individual file size limit (4GB for FAT32) and the absence of journaling, which can make them more susceptible to corruption in case of unexpected shutdowns.


title: FILESYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITS
content:
FAT filesystems created by <I>mkfs.vfat</I> are optimized for compatibility, but come with specific characteristics. FAT32 has a maximum individual file size of 4GB and typically supports partition sizes up to 2TB (or larger with 4KB sectors). FAT12 and FAT16 have smaller partition and file size limits. They lack journaling, making them less robust against corruption compared to modern filesystems like ext4 or NTFS.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <I>mkfs.vfat</I> command is part of the <I>dosfstools</I> project, a collection of utilities for creating, checking, and maintaining FAT filesystems on Linux and other Unix-like systems. Its development began in the early days of Linux to provide compatibility with Microsoft's FAT filesystem standard, which was and remains prevalent for removable media due to its ubiquity. The 'vfat' suffix specifically denotes support for long filenames, a feature introduced with Windows 95, making the command essential for modern FAT filesystem handling.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-b <i>unit</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Block size</I>. Specifies the fundamental block size of the filesystem. The default is 4096 bytes (4KB), and it must be a power of 2 between 512 and 65536 bytes.<br><br><b>-d <i>data_section_options</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Data section options</I>. Specifies parameters for the data section of the filesystem. Common options include <I>agcount</I> (number of allocation groups), <I>size</I> (size of the data section), <I>sunit</I> (stripe unit), and <I>swidth</I> (stripe width) for RAID arrays.<br><br><b>-f</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Force overwrite</I>. Forces <b>mkfs.xfs</b> to overwrite an existing filesystem on the device. Use with extreme caution as this will destroy all data.<br><br><b>-i <i>inode_options</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Inode options</I>. Specifies parameters for inode allocation. Options include <I>perag</I> (inodes per allocation group), <I>size</I> (inode size), and <I>maxpct</I> (maximum percentage of space for inodes).<br><br><b>-L <i>label</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Filesystem label</I>. Sets a human-readable label for the filesystem, which can be used for mounting or identification purposes.<br><br><b>-l <i>log_section_options</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Log section options</I>. Specifies parameters for the journaling log. Options include <I>internal</I> (internal log), <I>external</I> (external log device), <I>size</I> (log size), and <I>sunit</I> (log stripe unit).<br><br><b>-m <i>feature_options</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Mount options / features</I>. Specifies features that can be enabled or disabled, such as <I>crc=0|1</I> (enable/disable metadata checksums) or <I>finobt=0|1</I> (fast inode B+tree).<br><br><b>-n <i>naming_options</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Naming options</I>. Specifies parameters for directory naming, such as <I>ftype=0|1</I> (file type in directory entries). <I>ftype=1</I> is recommended for POSIX compliance.<br><br><b>-q</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Quiet mode</I>. Suppresses most output from the command, only displaying critical errors.<br><br><b>-r <i>realtime_section_options</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Realtime section options</I>. Specifies parameters for the optional realtime data section, used for applications requiring guaranteed bandwidth. Options include <I>size</I> (realtime section size), <I>sunit</I>, and <I>rtdev</I> (realtime device).<br><br><b>-R <i>sunit=...,swidth=...</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>RAID geometry</I>. Alias for <I>sunit</I> and <I>swidth</I> in the data section options. Useful for optimizing performance on RAID arrays.<br><br><b>-v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Verbose output</I>. Displays more information during the filesystem creation process.<br><br><b>-V</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<I>Version information</I>. Prints the version number of the <I>xfsprogs</I> package.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mkfs.xfs</b> is a powerful command used to build an XFS filesystem on a specified block device, typically a disk partition or a logical volume. XFS is a high-performance journaling filesystem, known for its scalability, robustness, and efficient handling of large files and directories. Developed by Silicon Graphics, Inc. (SGI), XFS was open-sourced and widely adopted by Linux distributions due to its advanced features.<br><br>When executed, <b>mkfs.xfs</b> initializes the filesystem's metadata structures, including the superblock, allocation groups, inodes, and the journaling log. This process essentially prepares the device to store data according to the XFS specification. It is crucial to use this command with caution, as it will overwrite any existing data on the target device. XFS is particularly well-suited for systems requiring high throughput and parallel I/O, making it a popular choice for database servers, media streaming, and high-performance computing environments. It offers excellent crash recovery capabilities through its journaling mechanism, ensuring data integrity even after unexpected power loss or system crashes.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mkfs.xfs</b> will <B>permanently destroy all data</B> on the target device. Always double-check the specified <I>device</I> before execution, especially when using the <I>-f</I> (force) option.<br>Unlike some other filesystems, XFS filesystems created with <b>mkfs.xfs</b> cannot be shrunk. They can only be grown using <I>xfs_growfs(8)</I>.<br>Ensure the target device is not currently mounted when attempting to create a new XFS filesystem.


title: DEFAULT PARAMETERS
content:
When not specified, <b>mkfs.xfs</b> intelligently defaults many parameters (like block size, inode size, log size) based on the size of the device to optimize performance and resource usage. For instance, the default data block size is 4KB.


title: JOURNALING
content:
XFS is a journaling filesystem, meaning it records changes to its metadata in a log before applying them to the main filesystem structure. This ensures filesystem consistency and rapid recovery after system crashes or power failures, as the log can be replayed to bring the filesystem back to a consistent state.


title: EXTENT-BASED ALLOCATION
content:
XFS uses extent-based allocation, which means it allocates contiguous blocks of space for files rather than individual blocks. This reduces fragmentation and improves performance, especially for large files, by minimizing the number of disk accesses required to read or write data.


title: HISTORY
content:
XFS was originally developed by Silicon Graphics, Inc. (SGI) in the early 1990s for its IRIX operating system. It was designed from the ground up to be a high-performance, 64-bit journaling filesystem, particularly optimized for large files and high I/O workloads. SGI open-sourced XFS under the GNU General Public License in May 2000, and it was subsequently merged into the Linux kernel mainline in 2002. Since then, it has become a robust and popular choice for server workloads and high-performance computing on Linux systems, thanks to its reliability, scalability, and advanced features like delayed allocation and extensive metadata journaling.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>username</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The name of the user for whom the home directory will be created. This is a mandatory positional argument passed by the invoking PAM module.<br><br><b>umask</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Optional) An octal value specifying the umask to be applied when creating the new home directory and its initial files. If not provided, the system's default umask (e.g., 0022) is used.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<I>mkhomedir_helper</I> is a crucial utility primarily invoked by the <I>pam_mkhomedir.so</I> Pluggable Authentication Module (PAM). Its core function is to automatically create a new user's home directory upon their first login to a system, if that directory does not already exist. This automation is vital for a seamless user experience, as it ensures that new users have a properly structured and initialized environment immediately available. <br><br>The helper copies initial configuration files and directories from a designated skeletal directory, typically <I>/etc/skel</I>, to the newly created home directory. It meticulously handles setting the correct ownership, permissions, and SELinux contexts for the home directory and its contents, aligning them with the user's UID, GID, and the system's security policies. While <I>mkhomedir_helper</I> is rarely executed directly by end-users, it forms an integral part of the PAM authentication and session management process, ensuring consistency and security in user environment provisioning. Its integration within PAM configurations, often found in files like <I>/etc/pam.d/common-session</I>, underscores its role in system-wide user management.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<B>Root Privileges:</B> This command typically requires root privileges to execute, as it creates directories and sets ownership for other users. It is usually invoked by PAM, which runs with elevated privileges.<br><br><B>Not User-Facing:</B> <I>mkhomedir_helper</I> is a backend utility and is not designed for direct interactive use by regular users. Incorrect direct invocation can lead to permission issues or security vulnerabilities.<br><br><B>Skeletal Directory Dependency:</B> Its functionality heavily relies on the existence and proper population of the skeletal directory (e.g., <I>/etc/skel</I>). If this directory is missing or empty, newly created home directories may lack essential default configuration files.<br><br><B>SELinux Considerations:</B> On systems with SELinux enabled, <I>mkhomedir_helper</I> must correctly label the new home directory and its contents with appropriate SELinux contexts. Failure to do so can lead to permission denied errors for the user, even if standard file permissions appear correct.


title: SKELETAL DIRECTORY (<I>/ETC/SKEL</I>)
content:
The <I>/etc/skel</I> directory serves as a template for new user home directories. When <I>mkhomedir_helper</I> creates a home directory, it copies all files and subdirectories from <I>/etc/skel</I> into the new user's home directory. This allows administrators to provide default configuration files, shell startup scripts, and other initial settings for all new users.


title: PAM INTEGRATION
content:
The primary way <I>mkhomedir_helper</I> is utilized is through the <I>pam_mkhomedir.so</I> module. This module is typically configured in PAM service files (e.g., <I>/etc/pam.d/system-auth</I> or <I>/etc/pam.d/login</I>) as a 'session' type module. When a user successfully authenticates and their session begins, <I>pam_mkhomedir.so</I> checks if the user's home directory exists. If not, it invokes <I>mkhomedir_helper</I> to create it, ensuring a consistent setup across the system.


title: SELINUX CONTEXT LABELING
content:
On systems employing SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux), <I>mkhomedir_helper</I> plays a critical role in ensuring that newly created home directories and their contents are correctly labeled with the appropriate SELinux contexts. This is vital for maintaining system security and preventing access control violations. Incorrect labeling can lead to applications or user processes being denied access to their own home directory files, even with correct traditional file permissions.


title: HISTORY
content:
<I>mkhomedir_helper</I> emerged as part of the Linux-PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules) project. Its development aimed to provide a standardized, secure, and automated mechanism for provisioning user home directories upon their initial login. Prior to such helper utilities, administrators often had to manually create home directories or rely on less flexible scripts. The integration with PAM ensures that home directory creation is an integral part of the authentication and session setup process, making it consistent across various login services that utilize PAM. Over time, its functionality has evolved to incorporate modern Linux security features, particularly correct SELinux context labeling, which is crucial for secure multi-user environments.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
mkinitcpio [-p <preset> | -P | -U | -u] [<options>]<br>mkinitcpio -g <image> [<options>]<br>mkinitcpio -L [-c <file>]<br>mkinitcpio -h | -V


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-p <preset>, --preset <preset></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Processes the specified preset file from <i>/etc/mkinitcpio.d/</i>, generating an image based on its configuration.<br><br><b>-P, --allpresets</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Processes all preset files found in <i>/etc/mkinitcpio.d/</i>, regenerating all associated images. This is commonly used after kernel updates.<br><br><b>-g <image>, --generate <image></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Generates a single initramfs image directly using the current configuration (or specified via <i>-c</i>).<br><br><b>-U, --update-all</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Updates all images specified by all presets. Similar to <i>-P</i> but specifically for updating existing images.<br><br><b>-u, --update</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Updates kernel images matching the current running kernel's version (<i>uname -r</i>).<br><br><b>-c <file>, --config <file></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative configuration file to use instead of the default <i>/etc/mkinitcpio.conf</i>.<br><br><b>-r <release>, --kernel <release></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the kernel release version for which to generate the image (e.g., <i>4.19.0-arch1-1-ARCH</i>).<br><br><b>-z <compressor>, --compress <compressor></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the compression method to use for the initramfs image (e.g., <i>gzip</i>, <i>lz4</i>, <i>zstd</i>).<br><br><b>-L, --list-hooks</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lists all available hooks that <i>mkinitcpio</i> can use, along with their brief descriptions.<br><br><b>-t, --test</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a dry run, parsing the configuration and hooks but not actually generating an image. Useful for debugging configuration issues.<br><br><b>-v, --verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides more detailed output during the image generation process.<br><br><b>-d, --debug</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides even more detailed, debug-level output.<br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message with command usage and options.<br><br><b>-V, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version information of <i>mkinitcpio</i>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mkinitcpio</i> is a powerful script used primarily in Arch Linux and its derivatives to generate a customized <b>initial RAM disk</b> (initramfs) image. This image is loaded by the kernel during the early boot process, providing essential modules and utilities required to mount the real root filesystem.<br><br>The initramfs is crucial for systems that rely on complex storage setups, such as <b>LVM</b> (Logical Volume Management), <b>software RAID</b>, <b>encrypted root filesystems</b> (e.g., LUKS), or certain advanced filesystem types like <b>Btrfs</b> or <b>ZFS</b>. It ensures that the necessary drivers and tools are available before the actual root filesystem is accessible.<br><br><i>mkinitcpio</i> operates based on a configuration file (typically <i>/etc/mkinitcpio.conf</i>) and a system of "hooks." These hooks are scripts that define which modules, binaries, and configurations should be included in the initramfs. By selectively including only what's needed, <i>mkinitcpio</i> helps keep the initramfs image size optimized while ensuring system bootability. It's often run automatically after kernel updates or manually when boot-critical configurations change.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Incorrect configuration in <i>/etc/mkinitcpio.conf</i> or missing hooks can lead to an <b>unbootable system</b>. Always test changes in a safe environment or have a recovery plan.<br>Regeneration is <b>essential</b> after kernel upgrades or changes to critical components like LVM, software RAID, or root filesystem encryption.<br>While the principles are universal, <i>mkinitcpio</i> is <b>primarily developed and maintained for Arch Linux</b>, and its default configuration and hook ecosystem are tailored to Arch's system.


title: HOOKS
content:
Hooks are shell scripts located in <i>/usr/lib/initcpio/hooks/</i> and configured in <i>/etc/mkinitcpio.conf</i>. Each hook adds specific functionality to the initramfs, such as:<br><i>base</i>: Essential utilities for the initramfs environment.<br><i>udev</i>: Populates <i>/dev</i> and loads modules.<br><i>autodetect</i>: Attempts to detect and include necessary modules.<br><i>block</i>: Adds modules for block devices.<br><i>keyboard</i>: Includes keyboard layout and keymap functionality.<br><i>encrypt</i>: Provides support for encrypted root filesystems (e.g., LUKS).<br><i>lvm2</i>: Includes LVM tools to activate logical volumes.<br><i>filesystems</i>: Adds modules for common filesystems (e.g., ext4, xfs, btrfs).<br>Hooks ensure that the initramfs contains precisely what's needed to find and mount the root filesystem.


title: PRESETS
content:
Presets are configuration files found in <i>/etc/mkinitcpio.d/</i> (e.g., <i>linux.preset</i>, <i>linux-lts.preset</i>). They simplify the generation process by defining a specific configuration for an initramfs image, including the kernel version, compression, and output path. Users typically don't run <i>mkinitcpio</i> directly with all options; instead, they use a preset (e.g., <i>mkinitcpio -p linux</i>) or let <i>mkinitcpio -P</i> process all presets. This makes kernel updates streamlined, as pacman often triggers <i>mkinitcpio -P</i> automatically.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mkinitcpio</i> emerged as the default initramfs generator for <b>Arch Linux</b>, replacing older, less flexible methods. Its development focused on providing a highly customizable and robust solution for Arch's "rolling release" model and its users' diverse hardware and software configurations. It introduced the <i>hook-based system</i>, which allows users to easily add support for various features like LUKS encryption, LVM, different filesystems, and network boot, making it integral to the Arch ecosystem.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-o</b> <i>outfile</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the output filename for the generated <i>initramfs</i> image. If not provided, it may default to a standard name based on the kernel <i>VERSION</i>.<br><br><b><i>VERSION</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The kernel version for which the <i>initramfs</i> should be built (e.g., <i>5.15.0-76-generic</i>). This often determines which modules are included.<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output during the build process, showing details of included modules, binaries, and the steps taken.<br><br><b><b>-q</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses non-error output, making the command run quietly.<br><br><b><b>-d</b> <i>level</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the debug level for more detailed logging. Higher numbers typically mean more debug information (e.g., 0=silent, 1=errors, 2=warnings, 3=info).<br><br><b><b>-A</b> <i>module</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces the inclusion of a specific kernel module, even if not automatically detected as required.<br><br><b><b>-B</b> <i>module</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Blacklists a kernel module, preventing it from being included in the <i>initramfs</i> image.<br><br><b><b>-u</b> <i>hook_dir</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative directory for custom hooks, which are scripts that extend <i>initramfs</i> functionality.<br><br><b><b>-c</b> <i>config_file</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies an alternative configuration file to override default settings for the <i>initramfs</i> build.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mkinitramfs</b> command is a utility used to create an <i>initramfs</i> (initial RAM filesystem) image. This image is a gzipped <i>cpio</i> archive containing a minimal root filesystem that is loaded by the Linux kernel very early in the boot process, even before the actual root filesystem is mounted.<br><br>The primary purpose of an <i>initramfs</i> is to provide the necessary drivers and utilities required to mount the real root filesystem. This includes drivers for storage controllers (e.g., SATA, NVMe, SCSI), RAID, LVM, and cryptographic disk setups. It typically contains a minimal set of binaries (often provided by <i>BusyBox</i>), libraries, and kernel modules.<br><br><b>mkinitramfs</b> collects these essential components, constructs the <i>cpio</i> archive, and then compresses it. This image is then passed to the kernel by the bootloader (e.g., GRUB). Upon loading, the kernel unpacks the <i>initramfs</i> into a <i>tmpfs</i> (RAM-based filesystem) and executes its <i>/init</i> script, which performs the necessary tasks to locate and mount the root filesystem, finally handing over control to the operating system.<br><br>It supersedes the older <i>initrd</i> (initial RAM disk) concept by offering greater flexibility and memory efficiency, as <i>initramfs</i> is unpacked directly into RAM rather than being loop-mounted as a block device.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The behavior and available options of <b>mkinitramfs</b> can vary significantly between Linux distributions, as different distributions use their own implementations (e.g., Debian/Ubuntu's <i>initramfs-tools</i> vs. Red Hat's <i>dracut</i>). Building a custom <i>initramfs</i> incorrectly can result in an unbootable system. Always back up your boot configuration and kernel before making manual changes. It relies on various external tools like <i>cpio</i>, <i>gzip</i>, and a properly configured kernel module environment.


title: INTERNAL WORKING
content:
At its core, <b>mkinitramfs</b> gathers specific kernel modules (based on the system's hardware and the target kernel version), essential binaries (like <i>pivot_root</i>, <i>switch_root</i>, and often a <i>BusyBox</i> binary for common utilities), necessary libraries, and, crucially, an <i>/init</i> script. This <i>/init</i> script is the first program the kernel executes once the <i>initramfs</i> is unpacked. It's responsible for tasks like probing for hardware, setting up device-mapper (LVM, cryptsetup) or RAID, mounting the real root filesystem, and then transitioning control to the operating system's main <i>init</i> process (e.g., <i>systemd</i>, <i>SysVinit</i>).


title: CUSTOMIZATION WITH HOOKS
content:
<b>mkinitramfs</b> typically supports a system of 'hooks' – scripts that can be added to extend its functionality. These hooks are executed at various stages during the <i>initramfs</i> build process or at boot time within the <i>initramfs</i> environment. Users can leverage hooks to include additional software, configure special boot options, or provide drivers for unusual hardware not automatically detected, allowing for highly customized boot environments.


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept of an initial RAM disk (<i>initrd</i>) was introduced in Linux kernel 2.1 to provide a way to load modules needed for mounting the root filesystem. The <b>mkinitrd</b> command was historically used to create these images. With Linux kernel 2.6, <i>initramfs</i> was introduced as a more flexible and memory-efficient successor to <i>initrd</i>. Instead of a loop-mounted block device, <i>initramfs</i> is a <i>cpio</i> archive that is unpacked directly into a <i>tmpfs</i>. The <b>mkinitramfs</b> command emerged as the primary utility to create these new <i>initramfs</i> images, often as part of distribution-specific tools like <i>initramfs-tools</i> (Debian/Ubuntu) or as an alternative to <i>dracut</i> (Red Hat/Fedora), reflecting the shift in boot-time initialization strategy.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<B>mkisofs</B> [<i>options</i>] <B>-o</B> <i>output_file.iso</i> <I>source_directory_or_files</I> [...]


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><B>-o</B> <I>file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path and name of the output <B>.iso</B> image file.<br><br><b><B>-r</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables <B>Rock Ridge</B> extensions, which preserve UNIX-style file attributes like permissions, ownership, timestamps, and symbolic links. This makes the ISO image more compliant with UNIX/Linux filesystems.<br><br><b><B>-J</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables <B>Joliet</B> extensions, primarily for compatibility with Microsoft Windows. This supports Unicode filenames and longer names (up to 64 characters) than standard ISO9660.<br><br><b><B>-R</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Synonym for <B>-r</B> (Rock Ridge).<br><br><b><B>-V</B> <I>id</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the <B>Volume ID</B> (or volume label) for the ISO image, which is displayed when the disc is mounted.<br><br><b><B>-b</B> <I>boot_image</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path to a boot image file (e.g., an El Torito boot image) for creating bootable CDs/DVDs. The path is relative to the source directory.<br><br><b><B>-c</B> <I>boot_catalog</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the path for the boot catalog file, used in conjunction with <B>-b</B> for El Torito bootable images. The path is relative to the source directory.<br><br><b><B>-U</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Allows all filenames to be used without strict ISO9660 compliance checking. Often used with <B>-r</B> to allow full UNIX filenames.<br><br><b><B>-udf</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creates a <B>UDF</B> (Universal Disk Format) filesystem alongside the ISO9660 filesystem, providing broader compatibility and support for larger files/volumes, typically for DVDs/BDs.<br><br><b><B>-m</B> <I>pattern</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Excludes files and directories matching the specified <I>pattern</I> from being added to the ISO image. Multiple <B>-m</B> options can be used.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mkisofs</i> is a command-line utility used to generate <B>ISO9660</B> filesystem images, commonly referred to as <B>ISO files</B>. These images are standard formats for storing data destined for optical media like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. The command takes a specified directory tree or set of files as input and constructs a single, self-contained .iso file that preserves the directory structure, file content, and various metadata. <br><br>It supports various extensions to the basic ISO9660 standard, such as <B>Rock Ridge</B> (for UNIX-like systems, preserving permissions, symlinks, and longer filenames), <B>Joliet</B> (for Windows, supporting Unicode filenames and longer names), and <B>UDF</B> (Universal Disk Format). This flexibility makes <i>mkisofs</i> an essential tool for creating bootable media, distributing software, or archiving data in a widely compatible format.


title: CAVEATS
content:
While widely used, <I>mkisofs</I> adheres to strict filename rules if not explicitly told to use extensions like Rock Ridge or Joliet. Filesystem permissions and ownership are preserved with Rock Ridge but may not be recognized by all operating systems. For creating bootable media, careful preparation of the boot image is required. Note that on many modern Linux distributions, <I>mkisofs</I> is often a symbolic link to <I>genisoimage</I>, which is a fork of the original <I>mkisofs</I> project.


title: CREATING BOOTABLE IMAGES
content:
To create a bootable ISO image, you typically need a specially prepared boot image file (e.g., a GRUB or SYSLINUX image) and specify it using the <B>-b</B> option. For El Torito bootable CDs, a boot catalog file is also created using the <B>-c</B> option. The boot image path is relative to the source directory provided to <I>mkisofs</I>.


title: ISO 9660 LEVELS AND EXTENSIONS
content:
<I>mkisofs</I> supports various ISO 9660 levels, which dictate filename length and character sets. By default, it tries to use the highest compatible level. Crucially, extensions like <B>Rock Ridge</B> (<B>-r</B>) for UNIX-like systems and <B>Joliet</B> (<B>-J</B>) for Windows are vital for preserving modern filenames, permissions, and other attributes that the base ISO 9660 standard lacks. For DVDs and Blu-rays, the <B>-udf</B> option provides UDF filesystem support for better compatibility and handling of larger files.


title: HISTORY
content:
The original <I>mkisofs</I> program was part of the <B>cdrtools</B> suite, developed by Eric Youngdale and later by Joerg Schilling. Over time, licensing changes and community disagreements led to a fork, resulting in <B>genisoimage</B>, which became the widely adopted open-source alternative. Many Linux distributions now provide <I>genisoimage</I> under the <I>mkisofs</I> command name (via a symbolic link). The functionality largely remains the same, but <I>genisoimage</I> is independently maintained. More recently, <B>xorriso</B> has emerged as a powerful, feature-rich tool that can also create and manipulate ISO/UDF images, often serving as a modern replacement for both <I>mkisofs</I> and burning tools.


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mklost+found</b> command is a utility specifically designed for <B>FAT (File Allocation Table)</B> filesystems, including MS-DOS, VFAT, and FAT32. Its primary purpose is to create the special <I>lost+found</I> directory on a mounted FAT filesystem.<br><br>This directory serves as a designated place for the filesystem consistency checker, <I>fsck.msdos</I> (also known as <I>dosfsck</I>), to store orphaned files and directories. Orphaned files are those that exist on the disk but are no longer linked to any directory entry. During a filesystem check, if <I>dosfsck</I> finds such unlinked files, it will attempt to recover them and place them into the <I>lost+found</I> directory. Without this directory, <I>dosfsck</I> would not have a standard location to put recovered data, potentially leading to data loss or unrecoverable sectors.<br><br>It's crucial to run <I>mklost+found</I> on a FAT partition before performing filesystem checks with <I>dosfsck</I> to ensure proper recovery operations. The command typically creates the directory with strict permissions (e.g., 0700) to protect recovered data.


title: CAVEATS
content:
This command is specifically for <B>FAT</B> (MS-DOS, VFAT, FAT32) filesystems. It is not used for Ext2/3/4, XFS, Btrfs, or other Linux native filesystems, which have their own mechanisms (e.g., <I>mke2fs</I> creates <I>lost+found</I> automatically).<br><br>The <I>lost+found</I> directory created by <I>mklost+found</I> must reside on the target FAT filesystem.<br><br>It's essential to create this directory <B>before</B> running <I>dosfsck</I> on a FAT partition to ensure proper recovery of orphaned files.


title: PURPOSE OF <I>LOST+FOUND</I>
content:
The <I>lost+found</I> directory is a special directory on Unix-like filesystems used by filesystem checkers (like <I>fsck</I>, <I>dosfsck</I>) to store orphaned files and directories. When the checker finds data blocks that are marked as used but are not associated with any file or directory (i.e., they are "lost"), it attempts to reconstruct the corresponding file entries and places them into the <I>lost+found</I> directory. These recovered files are typically named by their inode number (or equivalent, for FAT). Users can then inspect this directory to try and recover their data manually.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <I>mklost+found</I> utility is part of the <B>dosfstools</B> package, which provides a suite of utilities for manipulating FAT filesystems on Unix-like operating systems. It has been a standard component of this package for a long time, serving the fundamental purpose of preparing FAT volumes for integrity checks, reflecting the long-standing need for robust filesystem maintenance tools across different filesystem types.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
<I>fsck.msdos(8)</I>, <I>dosfsck(8)</I>, <I>fsck(8)</I>, <I>mkfs.msdos(8)</I>, The <I>lost+found</I> directory concept


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-P</b> <I>prefix</I>, <b>--prefix</b> <I>prefix</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a prefix to strip from the paths listed in the manifest. This is useful for creating manifests with relative paths.<br><br><b><b>-x</b> <I>regex</I>, <b>--exclude</b> <I>regex</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Excludes files or directories whose paths match the provided regular expression from the manifest.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables verbose output, providing more information during the manifest generation process.<br><br><b><b>-o</b> <I>output-file</I>, <b>--output-file</b> <I>output-file</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Redirects the generated manifest to the specified file instead of printing it to standard output (stdout).<br><br><b><I>directory</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The root directory from which to start scanning and generating the manifest. This is a mandatory argument.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mkmanifest</i> is a command-line utility designed to create a manifest file that lists all files within a specified directory, along with their corresponding SHA256 checksums. This tool is particularly useful in build systems, software distribution, and integrity verification processes, such as those found in Clear Linux OS development.<br><br>It helps ensure that all expected files are present and have not been tampered with by providing a verifiable list of content. The generated manifest typically contains one file path and its SHA256 sum per line, making it easy to parse and integrate into automated workflows. It allows for path prefixing and exclusion of specific files or directories using regular expressions.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mkmanifest</i> is primarily associated with the <i>go-mkmanifest</i> project and is a core utility within the Clear Linux OS ecosystem. It is <b>not</b> a standard utility found universally across all Linux distributions out-of-the-box. Its availability and specific functionality might differ if a different <i>mkmanifest</i> implementation is encountered. Users on non-Clear Linux systems might need to compile it from source or install it via specific package managers.


title: OUTPUT FORMAT
content:
The manifest output typically consists of lines formatted as <code>&lt;path&gt; &lt;SHA256 checksum&gt;</code>.<br>For example:<br><code>/usr/bin/mkmanifest b3b4a5c6d7e8f9a0b1c2d3e4f5a6b7c8d9e0f1a2b3c4d5e6f7a8b9c0d1e2f3a4</code><br>This simple format makes it easy to parse with standard text processing tools.


title: USE CASES
content:
<i>mkmanifest</i> is commonly used in Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment (CI/CD) pipelines to verify deployed artifacts, in software distribution to check package integrity after download, and during compilation processes to ensure all required source files are present and unchanged.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <i>mkmanifest</i> tool, specifically the <i>go-mkmanifest</i> implementation, was developed as part of the Clear Linux OS project by Intel. Its development focuses on creating a reliable and efficient way to generate file checksum manifests for package integrity and build reproducibility within the Clear Linux stateless operating system architecture. It is an integral component for managing and verifying the vast number of files that constitute the Clear Linux OS bundles and updates.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<i>mknod</i> [OPTION]... NAME TYPE [MAJOR MINOR]<br><br><i>NAME</i>: Pathname of the new special file.<br><i>TYPE</i>: One of 'b' (block), 'c' (character), or 'p' (FIFO/pipe).<br><i>MAJOR</i>: For 'b' or 'c' types, the major device number.<br><i>MINOR</i>: For 'b' or 'c' types, the minor device number.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-m, --mode=MODE</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set file permissions (octal or symbolic MODE).<br><br><b>-Z, --context=CTX</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set the SELinux security context to CTX.<br><br><b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display help message and exit.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Output version information and exit.<br><br><b>b</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Create a block special file. Requires MAJOR and MINOR.<br><br><b>c</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Create a character special file. Requires MAJOR and MINOR.<br><br><b>p</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Create a FIFO (named pipe). No major/minor needed.<br><br><b>MAJOR</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Major device number, identifies device type.<br><br><b>MINOR</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Minor device number, identifies specific device instance.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mknod</i> (make node) is a command-line utility used to create special files on a Linux or Unix-like system. These special files are not regular files or directories; instead, they represent interfaces to hardware devices or act as named pipes for inter-process communication (IPC). The command supports creating three primary types of nodes: <b>block special files</b> (<i>b</i>), typically used for disk drives or partitions; <b>character special files</b> (<i>c</i>), used for streaming devices like terminals or printers; and <b>FIFO (First-In, First-Out) special files</b>, also known as <b>named pipes</b> (<i>p</i>), which facilitate communication between unrelated processes. Creating device files (block or character) usually requires superuser privileges and specific major and minor device numbers, which identify the device and its instance within the system. Named pipes, however, can generally be created by any user in their own writable directories. <i>mknod</i> is a fundamental tool for system administrators and developers managing the /dev directory or setting up complex IPC mechanisms.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Creating <b>block</b> or <b>character special files</b> typically requires <b>root privileges</b>. Incorrect major and minor device numbers can lead to system instability or prevent devices from functioning. Modern Linux distributions often manage device nodes dynamically via systems like <i>udev</i>, making manual <i>mknod</i> usage for device files less common for everyday operations, though it remains crucial for specific scenarios or embedded systems. For creating <b>named pipes</b>, the <i>mkfifo</i> command is generally preferred due to its simpler syntax, though <i>mknod</i> can achieve the same result.


title: DEVICE NUMBERS (MAJOR & MINOR)
content:
<I>Major numbers</I> identify the general class or type of device driver (e.g., all SCSI disks share a major number). <I>Minor numbers</I> identify specific instances of that device (e.g., <i>sda1</i>, <i>sdb</i>, etc.) or sub-units within a device. These numbers are crucial for the kernel to correctly route I/O operations to the appropriate device.


title: PERMISSIONS
content:
By default, <i>mknod</i> creates files with permissions <i>a=rw,u+X,go+X</i> (0666 for a file) modified by the umask. The <i>-m, --mode=MODE</i> option allows specifying precise permission bits for the newly created special file, which is especially important for security and controlling access to device nodes.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <i>mknod</i> command has been a fundamental part of Unix-like operating systems since their early development. Its original purpose was to provide a means to create device entries in the /dev directory, which were essential for the operating system to interact with hardware peripherals. Over time, as Unix evolved into various flavors like Linux, <i>mknod</i> remained a core utility. While its direct use for creating standard device nodes has diminished somewhat with the advent of dynamic device management systems (like <i>devfs</i> and more recently <i>udev</i> in Linux), it continues to be vital for specific purposes, such as creating custom device drivers, setting up chroot environments, or manually restoring device nodes in emergency situations. Its role in creating <i>named pipes</i> (FIFOs) for inter-process communication also remains highly relevant.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-c</b>, <b>--cluster-size</b> <i>BYTES</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the cluster size in bytes. This is the smallest unit of disk space that can be allocated to a file. Common values are 512, 1024, 2048, 4096, 8192, 16384, 32768, 65536. A larger cluster size reduces fragmentation but wastes space for small files.<br><br><b><b>-L</b>, <b>--label</b> <i>VOLUME_LABEL</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the volume label for the new NTFS filesystem. The label can be up to 32 characters long and may contain spaces.<br><br><b><b>-f</b>, <b>--fast</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Performs a fast format. This skips checking the device for bad sectors and is significantly quicker than a full format. This option is equivalent to <b>-Q</b> or <b>--quick</b>.<br><br><b><b>-F</b>, <b>--force</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces <b>mkntfs</b> to run even if the specified device is mounted, part of a software RAID, or contains an existing filesystem that is not NTFS. Use with extreme caution as it can lead to data loss.<br><br><b><b>-n</b>, <b>--no-action</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Test mode. Performs all operations except actually writing to the device. Useful for dry runs to see what would happen without making any changes.<br><br><b><b>-q</b>, <b>--quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses most output from <b>mkntfs</b>, showing only critical errors. Useful for scripting.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--verbose</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Increases the verbosity of output, providing more detailed information about the formatting process.<br><br><b><b>-S</b>, <b>--sector-size</b> <i>BYTES</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the sector size of the device in bytes. This value must be a power of 2 and is typically 512 bytes or 4096 bytes for Advanced Format drives. Use only if you know the correct sector size for your device.<br><br><b><b>-U</b>, <b>--uuid</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Generates a new Universally Unique Identifier (UUID) for the filesystem. A UUID uniquely identifies the filesystem and is often used by system tools for mounting and identification.<br><br><b><b>-z</b>, <b>--zero</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Zeros out the entire device before creating the NTFS filesystem. This is a very slow operation but ensures that all previous data is irrecoverably overwritten. Useful for data sanitization.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mkntfs</b> command is a crucial utility from the <i>ntfsprogs</i> package, designed to create a new NTFS (New Technology File System) volume on a specified block device, such as a hard drive partition or a USB stick. NTFS is the primary filesystem used by Microsoft Windows, making <b>mkntfs</b> indispensable for Linux users who need to share or exchange data seamlessly with Windows systems.<br><br>When executed, <b>mkntfs</b> initializes the target device with the necessary NTFS structures, including the Master File Table (MFT), boot record, and other metadata. It allows users to define various filesystem parameters like volume label, cluster size, and sector size, which can impact performance and compatibility. By default, it performs a full format, checking for bad sectors, but also offers a "quick" format option for faster execution.<br><br>Proper use of <b>mkntfs</b> is vital for ensuring data integrity and interoperability. Incorrect usage, however, can lead to complete data loss on the target device, as it overwrites all existing data. It serves a similar purpose to <b>mkfs.ext4</b> or <b>mkfs.vfat</b> but specifically for the NTFS format.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Using <b>mkntfs</b> is a destructive operation that will permanently erase all data on the target device. Always double-check the specified <i>device</i> to ensure you are formatting the correct partition or disk. Running <b>mkntfs</b> requires root privileges.<br><br>While <b>mkntfs</b> allows specifying parameters like sector size and cluster size, incorrect values can lead to poor performance or incompatibility issues, especially if they do not match the underlying physical characteristics of the storage device. Some older options, such as -H (heads) and -p (sectors per track), are largely ignored on modern Linux systems because disk geometry is handled differently by the kernel. This command is for creating new filesystems, not for repairing or resizing existing ones; for repairs, use <b>ntfsfix</b>.


title: USAGE EXAMPLES
content:
To format a partition (e.g., <i>/dev/sdb1</i>) with a default NTFS filesystem:<br><i>sudo mkntfs /dev/sdb1</i><br><br>To format a partition with a specific volume label '<i>MyDataDisk</i>' and a cluster size of 4KB:<br><i>sudo mkntfs -L MyDataDisk -c 4096 /dev/sdc2</i><br><br>To perform a quick format on a USB drive with a volume label '<i>USB_STICK</i>':<br><i>sudo mkntfs -f -L USB_STICK /dev/sdd1</i><br><br>To perform a dry run (no changes made) for formatting <i>/dev/sda3</i>:<br><i>sudo mkntfs -n /dev/sda3</i>


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>mkntfs</b> command is a component of the <i>ntfsprogs</i> project, which emerged from the efforts of reverse-engineering the Microsoft NTFS filesystem. This project aimed to provide robust and reliable tools for interacting with NTFS volumes on Linux and other Unix-like operating systems. Initially, Linux had limited support for NTFS, primarily read-only. The development of <i>ntfsprogs</i> and later the <i>ntfs-3g</i> driver was crucial in bringing full read/write capabilities, allowing seamless data exchange and interoperability between Linux and Windows environments. <b>mkntfs</b> specifically addresses the need to create compatible NTFS partitions directly from Linux, a fundamental requirement for users working in mixed operating system environments.


title: SEE ALSO
content:
<b>ntfs-3g</b>(8), <b>ntfsprogs</b>(8), <b>mkfs</b>(8), <b>mkfs.ext4</b>(8), <b>mkfs.vfat</b>(8), <b>ntfsfix</b>(8), <b>mount</b>(8)


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-m</b> <i>&lt;method&gt;</i> | <b>--method=</b><i>&lt;method&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the cryptographic hash method to use. Common methods include <i>des</i>, <i>md5</i>, <i>sha-256</i>, and <i>sha-512</i>. The available methods depend on the system's `glibc` and `crypt` library implementation.<br><br><b><b>-s</b> <i>&lt;length&gt;</i> | <b>--salt-len=</b><i>&lt;length&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the length of the randomly generated salt string. A longer salt generally provides better security against certain types of attacks.<br><br><b><b>-S</b> <i>&lt;string&gt;</i> | <b>--salt=</b><i>&lt;string&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provides a specific salt string to be used instead of generating a random one. This is useful for replicating hashes or for specific requirements.<br><br><b><b>-p</b> <i>&lt;password&gt;</i> | <b>--password=</b><i>&lt;password&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Supplies the password directly as a command-line argument. <b><B>WARNING:</B></b> This is highly insecure as the password may be exposed in shell history or process lists. Use `<b>-P</b>` or omit for interactive input instead.<br><br><b><b>-P</b> | <b>--stdin</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Reads the password from standard input. This is the recommended secure method for scripting `<b>mkpasswd</b>` without exposing the password.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message with usage information and exits.<br><br><b><b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the program's version information and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The `<b>mkpasswd</b>` command-line utility is used to generate password hashes encrypted using the `crypt(3)` function, suitable for entries in system password files like `<i>/etc/passwd</i>` or `<i>/etc/shadow</i>`. It provides a convenient way to create salted and hashed passwords non-interactively or within scripts. Unlike simple hashing, `<b>mkpasswd</b>` handles the salting process, which adds randomness to the hash, significantly increasing resistance against rainbow table attacks. <br><br>Users can specify the desired cryptographic method (e.g., DES, MD5, SHA-256, SHA-512) and control salt generation, either by length or by providing a custom salt string. It typically prompts for the password interactively for security, but also supports reading from standard input or, less securely, directly from command-line arguments. This utility is invaluable for system administrators automating user creation or password updates.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Using `<b>-p</b>` or `<b>--password</b>` to pass a password directly on the command line is a significant security risk, as the password can be visible in shell history, process lists (`ps aux`), and logs. Always prefer interactive input or piping the password via standard input (`<b>-P</b>` or `<b>--stdin</b>`). <br><br>The availability of specific hashing methods (e.g., SHA-256, SHA-512) depends on your system's `glibc` and `crypt` library version. Older systems might support fewer robust algorithms. Always verify supported methods using `<b>man crypt</b>` or by checking your system's documentation.


title: SECURITY BEST PRACTICES
content:
When using `<b>mkpasswd</b>`, always prioritize security. Avoid supplying passwords directly on the command line (`<b>-p</b>`). Instead, either let `<b>mkpasswd</b>` prompt you interactively or use the `<b>-P</b>` (or `<b>--stdin</b>`) option to pipe the password from standard input. This prevents the password from being stored in command history or being visible in process listings. Furthermore, always choose the strongest available hashing algorithm supported by your system, such as SHA-512, to maximize resistance against brute-force and dictionary attacks.


title: ALGORITHM AND SALT CONSIDERATIONS
content:
The strength of the generated hash depends heavily on the chosen cryptographic algorithm and the salt. Modern systems typically support SHA-256 and SHA-512, which are significantly more secure than the older DES or MD5 algorithms. A sufficiently long and randomly generated salt (the default behavior of `<b>mkpasswd</b>` if not specified) is crucial for preventing rainbow table attacks. Different Linux distributions and `glibc` versions might have slight variations in supported methods and default salt lengths; consult your system's `<b>man crypt</b>` page for specifics.


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept of `crypt(3)` for password hashing has been a cornerstone of Unix security since the very early versions, such as V7 Unix. The `<b>mkpasswd</b>` utility itself emerged as a convenient wrapper around this fundamental C library function, simplifying the process of generating suitable password hashes for system authentication files. <br><br>Historically, it was often distributed as part of packages like `expect` (a Tcl extension) or `whois`, reflecting its utility in scripting and system administration tasks. Its evolution has mirrored advancements in cryptography, with initial support for the DES algorithm being augmented by stronger methods like MD5, SHA-256, and SHA-512, driven by the need to combat increasing computational power and evolving security threats.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><B>-V</B> or <B>--version</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays program version and exits.<br><br><b><B>-q</B> or <B>--quiet</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses most output messages during creation.<br><br><b><B>-f</B> or <B>--force</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces filesystem creation even if it's already present or not empty.<br><br><b><B>-b</B> <I>BLOCK_SIZE</I> or <B>--block-size</B> <I>BLOCK_SIZE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the block size in bytes (1024, 2048, or 4096). Default is 4096.<br><br><b><B>-h</B> <I>HASH_FUNCTION</I> or <B>--hash</B> <I>HASH_FUNCTION</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the hash function for directory entries (r5, rupasov, or tea).<br><br><b><B>-S</B> <I>JOURNAL_SIZE</I> or <B>--journal-size</B> <I>JOURNAL_SIZE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the journal size in blocks. Default is 8MB (2048 blocks).<br><br><b><B>-s</B> <I>JOURNAL_MAX_BATCH</I> or <B>--max-batch</B> <I>JOURNAL_MAX_BATCH</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the maximum number of blocks to write to the journal in one transaction.<br><br><b><B>-t</B> <I>JOURNAL_MAX_COMMIT_AGE</I> or <B>--max-commit-age</B> <I>JOURNAL_MAX_COMMIT_AGE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the maximum time in seconds before a journal commit occurs.<br><br><b><B>-o</B> <I>options</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies ReiserFS specific options, typically passed to the kernel module.<br><br><b><B>-l</B> <I>LABEL</I> or <B>--label</B> <I>LABEL</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Assigns a volume label to the filesystem.<br><br><b><B>-u</B> <I>UUID</I> or <B>--uuid</B> <I>UUID</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Assigns a Universal Unique Identifier (UUID) to the filesystem.<br><br><b><B>-j</B> <I>JOURNAL_DEVICE</I> or <B>--journal-device</B> <I>JOURNAL_DEVICE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Uses an external device for the journal.<br><br><b><B>-A</B> or <B>--avoid-badblocks-check</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Skips the bad block scan during filesystem creation.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<I>mkreiserfs</I> is a utility used to create a ReiserFS filesystem on a block device, such as a hard drive partition or a logical volume. ReiserFS is a journaling filesystem that organizes all filesystem objects (inodes, directories, data) into a single, balanced tree structure, aiming for efficiency and performance, especially with many small files. It was once a popular alternative to ext3, offering features like efficient handling of small files and journaling for data integrity. While it provides good performance, it has largely been superseded by newer filesystems like ext4, XFS, and Btrfs due to ongoing development, feature sets, and broader community support. It's crucial to understand that creating a new filesystem on a device will <B>destroy all existing data</B> on that device.


title: CAVEATS
content:
ReiserFS is a legacy filesystem. Newer, more actively developed alternatives (ext4, XFS, Btrfs) are generally recommended for new deployments due to better performance, stability, and ongoing support.<br><br>While later versions improved journaling, some older ReiserFS versions (before 3.6) had a higher risk of data corruption during power failures or unclean shutdowns under specific workloads. <br><br>Always use <B>reiserfsck</B> to check and repair ReiserFS filesystems, especially after unclean shutdowns. <br><br><B>Creating a new filesystem will irrevocably destroy all existing data on the target device.</B>


title: <I>USAGE EXAMPLE</I>
content:
<I>To create a ReiserFS filesystem on a partition like <B>/dev/sda1</B> with default settings:</I><br><br><I>sudo mkreiserfs /dev/sda1</I><br><br><I>To create a ReiserFS filesystem with a specific block size and label:</I><br><br><I>sudo mkreiserfs -b 4096 -l "MyDataDisk" /dev/sdb1</I><br><br><I>Always ensure you are targeting the correct device, as this operation will erase all existing data.</I>


title: HISTORY
content:
ReiserFS was developed by Hans Reiser and Namesys, first included in the Linux kernel in version 2.4.1 in 2001. It was notable for being one of the first journaling filesystems widely available for Linux, offering improved crash recovery and efficient handling of small files compared to its predecessors. It gained some popularity as an alternative to ext3. However, its development and adoption largely stalled after Hans Reiser's conviction for murder in 2008, combined with the emergence and rapid development of ext4, XFS, and Btrfs, which offered comparable or superior features and performance, along with more robust community support.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
As 'mkshortcut' is not a standard command, there is no universal synopsis. However, the functionality it implies is achieved via the following common methods:<br><br><b>1. For Symbolic Links (Command Line):</b><br><i>To create a soft link to a file or directory:</i><br><code><b>ln -s</b> <I>TARGET LINK_NAME</I></code><br><i>Example:</i> `<b>ln -s /usr/bin/firefox ~/Desktop/firefox_shortcut</b>`<br><br><b>2. For Desktop Entry Files (GUI Launchers):</b><br><i>To create a custom application launcher for graphical environments:</i><br>This involves creating a plain text file (e.g., `<i>MyApplication.desktop</i>`) in a relevant directory (like `<i>~/.local/share/applications/</i>` or `<i>~/Desktop/</i>`) with the following structure and making it executable:<br><code><b>[Desktop Entry]</b><br><b>Type=Application</b><br><b>Exec=</b><i>/path/to/executable [arguments]</i><br><b>Name=</b><i>My Application Name</i><br><b>Icon=</b><i>icon-name-or-path</i><br><b>Terminal=false</b><br><b>Comment=</b><i>A short description of the application</i><br><b>Categories=</b><i>Utility;Development;</i></code>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>N/A</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The command `mkshortcut` is not a standard Linux utility and therefore does not have defined parameters. The functionality it implies is typically achieved using other commands like `<b>ln</b>` for symbolic links, or by manually creating and configuring `.desktop` files for GUI launchers. Please refer to the 'Synopsis' section for common methods and their specific syntax and options.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The command 'mkshortcut' is <B>not a standard Linux command</B> found in common Linux distributions. Therefore, there is no official manual page or universally recognized syntax for it. When discussing 'making a shortcut' on Linux, it typically refers to one of two primary methods:<br><br>1. <B>Symbolic Links (Soft Links)</B>: These are special files that serve as pointers to other files or directories on the filesystem. Created using the `<b>ln -s</b>` command, symbolic links are primarily used for providing convenient access to frequently used files, directories, or executables from multiple locations without duplicating the actual data. They are a core filesystem feature.<br><br>2. <B>Desktop Entry Files (.desktop)</B>: These are plain text configuration files that adhere to the freedesktop.org Desktop Entry Specification. They are utilized by graphical desktop environments (such as GNOME, KDE Plasma, XFCE, Cinnamon, MATE, etc.) to represent applications, URLs, or specific directories within application menus, on the desktop, or in panels. These files contain metadata like the application's display name, the command to execute, the icon to use, and categorized information.<br><br>While a specific utility or script named `mkshortcut` might exist on particular systems or in specialized environments, this analysis focuses on the standard, widely adopted methods used to achieve the functionality implied by 'mkshortcut' in a typical Linux context.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li>The command `mkshortcut` is <B>not a standard Linux command</B>. Its presence on a system likely indicates a custom script, alias, or a utility from a specific, non-standard software package.</li><li>It is crucial to understand the distinction between <I>symbolic links</I> (which operate at the filesystem level, acting as pointers to files or directories) and <I>desktop entry files</I> (which are configuration files interpreted by graphical desktop environments to launch applications or URLs). They serve different purposes and behave differently.</li><li>Desktop entry (`.desktop`) files must have executable permissions (`<b>chmod +x</b>`) and may need to be explicitly 'trusted' or 'allowed to launch' by your specific desktop environment before they become active clickable icons.</li><li>The visual appearance and management of desktop shortcuts can vary significantly between different Linux desktop environments (e.g., GNOME, KDE Plasma, XFCE, LXQt), even though they generally adhere to the freedesktop.org standards for `.desktop` files.</li></ul>


title: SYMBOLIC LINKS VS. DESKTOP ENTRIES: A KEY DISTINCTION
content:
<B>Symbolic Links</B> are direct pointers within the filesystem hierarchy. When you interact with a symbolic link (e.g., `<b>cat my_symlink</b>`), the system resolves it to the target file or directory, and the operation is performed on the target. They are transparent at the command-line level and are used for various purposes, including creating aliases for commands, linking shared libraries, or providing access to deeply nested directories from a more convenient location.<br><br><B>Desktop Entries</B>, conversely, are not filesystem pointers in the same sense. They are descriptive configuration files that define <I>how</I> an application should be launched and presented within a graphical desktop environment. A `.desktop` file provides metadata such as the application's name, the command to execute (which might be complex), an icon, and categories for menu organization. They are essential for integrating software seamlessly into the user's graphical workspace and providing user-friendly clickable icons in menus, docks, or on the desktop itself.


title: CREATING GUI SHORTCUTS MANUALLY (STEP-BY-STEP)
content:
To manually create a desktop shortcut (launcher) for a GUI application, follow these general steps:<br><br>1. <B>Choose a location</B>: For personal use, save the file in `<i>~/.local/share/applications/</i>` to add it to your application menu, or in `<i>~/Desktop/</i>` for a desktop icon.<br>2. <B>Create the file</B>: Use a text editor to create a new file with a `.desktop` extension (e.g., `<i>MyCustomApp.desktop</i>`).<br>3. <B>Add content</B>: Populate the file with the necessary fields according to the Desktop Entry Specification. Essential fields include:<br>   - `<b>[Desktop Entry]</b>`: The mandatory header that identifies the file type.<br>   - `<b>Type=Application</b>`: Specifies that this entry describes an application (can also be `Link` for URLs or `Directory`).<br>   - `<b>Exec=</b><i>/path/to/executable [arguments]</i>`: The command to execute when the shortcut is activated. Ensure the full path to the executable.<br>   - `<b>Name=</b><i>My Custom Application</i>`: The name that will be displayed in menus or on the desktop.<br>   - `<b>Icon=</b><i>icon-name</i>` (or `<i>/path/to/icon.png</i>`): The icon associated with the launcher. Use a system icon name (e.g., `firefox`) or a full path.<br>   - `<b>Terminal=false</b>`: Set to `<b>true</b>` if the application runs in a terminal window, `<b>false</b>` otherwise.<br>   - `<b>Comment=</b><i>A brief description of my custom application.</i>`: A tooltip or longer description.<br>   - `<b>Categories=</b><i>Utility;Development;</i>`: Optional; helps organize the application in menus.<br>4. <B>Set permissions</B>: Make the `.desktop` file executable using `<b>chmod +x MyCustomApp.desktop</b>`. This is crucial for it to be recognized as a launcher.<br>5. <B>Trust the launcher</B>: Some desktop environments require you to right-click the newly created `.desktop` file and select an option like 'Allow Launching', 'Mark as Trusted', or 'Trust and Launch' before it becomes a clickable icon.


title: HISTORY
content:
There is no specific historical development or origin for a command named `mkshortcut` within the standard Linux command-line utilities. However, the underlying concepts and technologies used for creating shortcuts on Linux have a long and distinct history:<br><br><ul><li><B>Symbolic Links</B>: The concept of symbolic links (also known as soft links or symlinks) has been a fundamental feature of Unix-like operating systems since the 1980s. They were introduced to provide a flexible way to manage file system structure and access.</li><li><B>Desktop Entry Files</B>: The `.desktop` file format and the broader Desktop Entry Specification were developed and standardized by the <I>freedesktop.org</I> project. This initiative began in the early 2000s with the goal of fostering interoperability between different Linux desktop environments, allowing applications and their launchers to be managed consistently across various desktop interfaces.</li></ul>


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mksmbpasswd</b> [<i>UNIX_PASSWD_FILE</i>]<br>or frequently used with input redirection:<br><b>cat</b> <i>UNIX_PASSWD_FILE</i> | <b>mksmbpasswd</b>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>UNIX_PASSWD_FILE</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;An <i>optional</i> path to a standard Unix password file (e.g., /etc/passwd). If not provided, the script typically reads from standard input, allowing it to be used in a pipeline.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mksmbpasswd</i> is typically a <b>helper script</b> designed to assist administrators in migrating existing Unix user accounts into a Samba domain or standalone server. Its primary function is to read a standard Unix password file (like /etc/passwd) and generate a list of usernames (and sometimes UIDs) in a format suitable for input into Samba's user management utilities, such as <i>smbpasswd</i> or <i>pdbedit</i>.<br><br>Unlike a direct password setting utility, <i>mksmbpasswd</i> often <b>prepares the user list</b>, rather than setting the Samba passwords directly. The output of <i>mksmbpasswd</i> is commonly piped as input to <i>smbpasswd -a</i> (to add users) or <i>pdbedit -a</i> (for more advanced user database management). This process helps automate the creation of numerous Samba user entries, streamlining the setup of file and print sharing services for existing Unix users. Its exact behavior and available options can vary significantly as it is often a custom script rather than a standardized, pre-compiled binary.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li><i>mksmbpasswd</i> is <b>not</b> a standard Samba binary or a universally distributed Linux command. It is often a custom shell script or a helper utility found in various Samba documentation or community contributions. Its behavior, features, and even existence can vary significantly between systems.</li><li>The script usually <b>prepares</b> a user list for Samba tools, rather than setting the actual Samba passwords. Follow-up commands like <i>smbpasswd</i> or <i>pdbedit</i> are required to set and manage the Samba passwords.</li><li>Security implications: Ensure that the script does not expose sensitive information or create accounts with default/weak passwords without proper subsequent configuration.</li></ul>


title: CUSTOM SCRIPT NATURE
content:
Because <i>mksmbpasswd</i> is often a user-created or community-shared script, its implementation can differ. Administrators may need to inspect the script's source code (if available) to understand its precise functionality, output format, and any specific options it supports. This also means it might not be present on all systems by default.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mksmbpasswd</i> doesn't have a formal development history as a standalone project or command. Instead, it emerged as a common administrative solution for a recurring problem: efficiently migrating Unix users to Samba environments. As Samba gained popularity, administrators frequently needed to synchronize Unix and Samba user bases. Various versions of this script, often simple shell scripts, were developed and shared within the Samba community and documentation to automate this process, reflecting a practical need rather than a formal software development lifecycle.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-b</b> <I>SIZE</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the data block size (e.g., 1M, 512K). Default is 1MB. Larger blocks often yield better compression but use more memory during decompression.<br><br><b><b>-comp</b> <I>ALGORITHM</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the compression algorithm to use. Common values include <I>gzip</I>, <I>lzma</I>, <I>lzo</I>, <I>xz</I>, <I>zstd</I>, <I>lz4</I>.<br><br><b><b>-X</b> <I>OPTION</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Passes specific options directly to the selected compression algorithm (e.g., <I>-Xcompression-level 9</I> for Gzip/XZ).<br><br><b><b>-p</b> <I>N</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Uses <I>N</I> processors (cores) for parallel compression, significantly speeding up image creation on multi-core systems.<br><br><b><b>-e</b> <I>PATTERN</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Excludes files or directories matching the specified pattern from the Squashfs image.<br><br><b><b>-no-duplicates</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables checking for duplicate files. This can speed up creation but might result in a larger image if duplicates exist.<br><br><b><b>-root-becomes</b> <I>DIR</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Makes the specified directory <I>DIR</I> the new root of the Squashfs filesystem, effectively placing all content under it.<br><br><b><b>-info</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints a detailed list of all files and directories as they are added to the Squashfs archive.<br><br><b><b>-noD</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables compression of data blocks. Only metadata will be compressed.<br><br><b><b>-all-root</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets all file and directory ownership within the Squashfs image to root (UID 0, GID 0).<br><br><b><b>-noappend</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prevents appending to an existing Squashfs file. If the destination file exists, <I>mksquashfs</I> will overwrite it.<br><br><b><b>-version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the <I>mksquashfs</I> utility version information and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<I>mksquashfs</I> is a powerful utility for creating Squashfs filesystems. Squashfs is a compressed, read-only filesystem designed for Linux, commonly used for distributing live CDs, embedded Linux systems, and firmware images due to its excellent compression ratios and efficient read performance.<br><br>It supports various compression algorithms (e.g., Gzip, LZMA, LZO, XZ, Zstandard, LZ4), allowing users to balance compression ratio with speed. <I>mksquashfs</I> can process multiple input sources (directories, files, or even other Squashfs images) and merge them into a single output Squashfs file, handling deduplication of identical files and metadata. It's optimized for both space saving and fast access to packaged content.


title: CAVEATS
content:
Squashfs is a read-only filesystem; content within the created image cannot be modified directly after creation. Any changes require rebuilding the entire image. Choosing the optimal block size and compression algorithm involves a trade-off between image size, creation time, and decompression performance.


title: COMMON USE CASES
content:
<I>mksquashfs</I> is extensively used for creating compressed archives for distribution, such as bootable live CD/USB images, firmware updates for embedded devices, and as a lightweight, read-only root filesystem for system installations or containers. Its efficiency also makes it suitable for archiving large collections of static data to save disk space.


title: PERFORMANCE TUNING
content:
Key options for performance tuning are <I>-b</I> (block size) and <I>-comp</I> (compression algorithm) with its <I>-X</I> options. Larger block sizes often lead to better compression but require more RAM during decompression. Modern algorithms like <I>zstd</I> or <I>lz4</I> offer excellent decompression speeds, while <I>xz</I> typically achieves the best compression ratio. Using <I>-p</I> <I>N</I> (parallel processing) can drastically reduce image creation time on multi-core machines.


title: HISTORY
content:
Squashfs, and subsequently <I>mksquashfs</I>, was originally developed by Phillip Lougher, with its first public release around 2002. It gained significant traction due to its efficient compression and read-only nature, becoming a standard for Linux live distributions (e.g., Ubuntu Live CDs) and embedded systems. The Squashfs kernel module was integrated into the Linux mainline kernel from version 2.6.29, cementing its role as a widely adopted filesystem for static data.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>--check, -c</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Checks the device for bad blocks before creating the swap space. This can increase the time required for the operation.<br><br><b>--force, -f</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Forces <b>mkswap</b> to proceed even if the specified device is busy, mounted, or appears to contain an existing file system or swap signature. Use with extreme caution as this can lead to irrevocable data loss.<br><br><b>--label <label>, -L <label></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies a label for the swap area. Labels can be useful for identifying swap partitions, especially in <I>/etc/fstab</I> entries, providing a more human-readable identifier than a UUID.<br><br><b>--uuid <uuid>, -U <uuid></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the UUID (Universally Unique Identifier) to be used for the swap area. If not provided, <b>mkswap</b> generates a new, random UUID. Using UUIDs in <I>/etc/fstab</I> is generally recommended for stable system configurations.<br><br><b>--pagesize <size>, -p <size></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the page size in bytes. This option is usually not needed as <b>mkswap</b> automatically determines the appropriate page size based on the system's architecture.<br><br><b>--size <blocks>, -s <blocks></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the desired size of the swap area in 1KB blocks. This option is mostly deprecated as <b>mkswap</b> can infer the size from the device or file's total capacity. It's primarily useful for creating swap files with specific sizes.<br><br><b>--discard[=once|pages], -d[=once|pages]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enables discard/TRIM support for SSDs or thin-provisioned LVM volumes. <I>once</I> discards all blocks once, <I>pages</I> discards pages when they are freed.<br><br><b>--version, -v</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays version information and exits.<br><br><b>--help, -h</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays a help message and exits.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mkswap</b> is a Linux command used to set up a swap area on a device or file. A swap area is a portion of a hard drive, SSD, or even a regular file, that is used as virtual memory. When the system runs out of physical RAM, inactive pages of memory are moved to swap space, freeing up RAM for active processes. This process is known as "swapping" or "paging out".<br><br>The <b>mkswap</b> command writes a swap signature to the specified device or file, marking it as a valid swap space. This signature includes crucial information like the UUID, label, and page size. It is crucial to understand that <b>mkswap</b> only <i>prepares</i> the swap space; it does not activate it. After running <b>mkswap</b>, the swap area must be enabled using the <b>swapon</b> command. To make the swap space persistent across reboots, an entry must be added to the <I>/etc/fstab</I> file. Using <b>mkswap</b> on a device will overwrite any existing data on it, so extreme caution is advised to avoid data loss.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li><b>Data Loss Risk:</b> <br><b>mkswap</b> overwrites all data on the specified device or file. Ensure you are targeting the correct volume to prevent accidental data loss.</li><li><b>Activation Required:</b> <br>Creating a swap area with <b>mkswap</b> does not automatically activate it. You must use the <b>swapon</b> command (e.g., <I>swapon /dev/sdXn</I> or <I>swapon /path/to/swapfile</I>) to enable it.</li><li><b>Persistence:</b> <br>For swap to be active after reboot, an entry must be added to <I>/etc/fstab</I> (e.g., <I>UUID=&lt;uuid&gt; none swap sw 0 0</I> or <I>/path/to/swapfile none swap sw 0 0</I>).</li><li><b>Performance:</b> <br>While convenient, using a swap file on a general-purpose filesystem can be slower than using a dedicated swap partition due to filesystem overhead and fragmentation.</li></ul>


title: <I>CREATING A SWAP FILE</I>
content:
Instead of a dedicated partition, <b>mkswap</b> can create a swap area within a regular file. First, create a file of the desired size using <b>fallocate</b> (or <b>dd</b> for older systems), for example: <I>fallocate -l 2G /swapfile</I>. Then, secure its permissions: <I>chmod 600 /swapfile</I>. Finally, format it with <b>mkswap</b>: <I>mkswap /swapfile</I>. This method offers flexibility but might be slower than a dedicated partition.


title: <I>MAKING SWAP PERMANENT</I>
content:
To ensure your swap space is activated automatically on every system boot, you need to add an entry to the <I>/etc/fstab</I> file. It's highly recommended to use the UUID of the swap partition/file for reliable identification. You can find the UUID using <b>blkid</b> or <I>lsblk -f</I>. An entry would typically look like: <I>UUID=YOUR_SWAP_UUID none swap sw 0 0</I> for a partition, or <I>/path/to/swapfile none swap sw 0 0</I> for a swap file. After editing <I>fstab</I>, run <I>swapon -a</I> to activate all swap entries specified in the file.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>mkswap</b> command is a fundamental utility within the <I>util-linux</I> project, which provides a wide range of essential system utilities for Linux. It has been a core component of Linux distributions since the early days of the operating system, evolving alongside kernel developments to support various swap formats and features like UUIDs and labels, improving system administration and reliability.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
mktemp [<i>OPTION</i>]... [<i>TEMPLATE</i>]<br><br>If <i>TEMPLATE</i> is not specified, tmp.XXXXXXXXXX is used by default. <i>TEMPLATE</i> must contain at least three consecutive 'X's.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-d, --directory</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Create a directory instead of a file. This is useful for storing multiple temporary files together.<br><br><b>-u, --dry-run</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not create anything; merely print a temporary name that would be used. Useful for testing or generating names without immediate creation.<br><br><b>-q, --quiet</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress diagnostics about file or directory creation failure. Useful in scripts where errors are handled programmatically.<br><br><b>-p, --tmpdir[=DIR]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Interpret <i>TEMPLATE</i> relative to a specified <i>DIR</i>, or the directory indicated by the <b>TMPDIR</b> environment variable if <i>DIR</i> is not provided. If <b>TMPDIR</b> is not set, <i>/tmp</i> is used.<br><br><b>--suffix=SUFF</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Append <i>SUFF</i> to <i>TEMPLATE</i>. The <i>TEMPLATE</i> should still end with 'X's and the suffix will be added after the random characters.<br><br><b>--help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a help message and exit.<br><br><b>--version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Output version information and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mktemp</b> command provides a secure and reliable way to create temporary files or directories in shell scripts and programs. It addresses a common security vulnerability: <i>race conditions</i> that can occur when multiple processes try to create temporary files simultaneously, or when a predictable temporary file name is used. Instead of generating a predictable name, <b>mktemp</b> takes a <i>template</i> (e.g., <i>/tmp/myfile.XXXXXXXX</i>) and replaces the 'X' characters with a random string, ensuring a unique and unpredictable name. It then atomically creates the file or directory with appropriate permissions, preventing other processes from creating a file with the same name between the time it's chosen and created. By default, <b>mktemp</b> creates a file; however, the <i>-d</i> option allows it to create a directory. The name of the successfully created file or directory is printed to standard output, making it easy to capture and use in scripts. This robust approach is crucial for writing secure and stable shell scripts.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<ul><li><b>Shell Expansion</b>: The <i>TEMPLATE</i> passed to <b>mktemp</b> is not expanded by the shell. Any shell variables in the template must be expanded <i>before</i> passing the argument to <b>mktemp</b>.</li><li><b>Post-Creation Vulnerabilities</b>: While <b>mktemp</b> itself is secure, it only guarantees that the file/directory is uniquely created. If the script then changes permissions or moves the file insecurely <i>after</i> <b>mktemp</b> returns, vulnerabilities can still arise.</li><li><b>Template 'X's</b>: The <i>TEMPLATE</i> must contain at least three consecutive 'X' characters. Fewer 'X's might result in an error or insufficient uniqueness.</li><li><b>Cleanup</b>: <b>mktemp</b> does not automatically remove the created temporary file or directory. It is the responsibility of the calling script or program to ensure proper cleanup, typically using <b>rm</b> or <b>rmdir</b>.</li></ul>


title: RETURN VALUE
content:
The created temporary file or directory name is printed to standard output. Scripts should capture this output (e.g., <code>TEMP_FILE=$(mktemp)</code>) for subsequent use.


title: EXIT STATUS
content:
<ul><li><b>0</b>: Success.</li><li><b>&gt;0</b>: An error occurred (e.g., invalid template, insufficient permissions, failed creation).</li></ul>


title: ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
content:
The <b>TMPDIR</b> environment variable specifies the directory where temporary files and directories should be created if the <i>-p</i> option is used without a specific directory, or if no <i>TEMPLATE</i> is provided and the default <i>/tmp</i> location is overridden.


title: HISTORY
content:
The concept of secure temporary file creation evolved to address critical security flaws found in older methods, such as simply using <i>/tmp/predictable_name.$$</i>. Early versions of <b>mktemp(1)</b> (not to be confused with the modern GNU <b>mktemp</b>) were prone to race conditions. The modern <b>mktemp</b> command, often part of GNU Coreutils, was developed to leverage the atomic and secure mechanisms provided by C library functions like <b>mkstemp(3)</b> and <b>mkdtemp(3)</b>. This ensures that the process of generating a unique name and creating the file/directory is indivisible, thus eliminating race conditions and preventing malicious exploitation. Its inclusion in standard Linux distributions made it a cornerstone for writing robust and secure shell scripts.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mktorrent</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>] <i>&lt;target_file_or_directory ...&gt;</i><br><b>mktorrent</b> [<i>OPTIONS</i>] <b>-o</b> <i>&lt;output_file.torrent&gt; &lt;target_file_or_directory ...&gt;</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-a</b> <i>&lt;url&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specify</i> a tracker URL. This option can be used <i>multiple times</i> to include multiple trackers in the torrent file.<br><br><b><b>-c</b> <i>&lt;comment&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Add</i> a descriptive comment string to the torrent's metadata.<br><br><b><b>-h</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Display</i> a brief usage message and exit.<br><br><b><b>-l</b> <i>&lt;piece_length&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Set</i> the piece length in bytes. The value is a power of 2, where <i>&lt;piece_length&gt;</i> is the exponent (e.g., <b>-l 18</b> sets a piece size of 2<sup>18</sup> bytes, which is 256 KB).<br><br><b><b>-n</b> <i>&lt;name&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Force</i> the name of the torrent. By default, the torrent name is derived from the target file or directory name.<br><br><b><b>-o</b> <i>&lt;file&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Specify</i> the output filename for the <i>.torrent</i> file. If this option is omitted, the torrent data is written to standard output.<br><br><b><b>-p</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Set</i> the 'private' flag in the torrent metadata. This flag indicates that the torrent should only use the tracker for peer discovery, disabling Distributed Hash Table (DHT) and Peer Exchange (PEX).<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Display</i> the <i>mktorrent</i> version information and exit.<br><br><b><b>-w</b> <i>&lt;url&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Add</i> a web seed (HTTP/FTP seeding) URL to the torrent metadata. This option can be used <i>multiple times</i>.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mktorrent</i> is a compact command-line utility designed for generating BitTorrent metadata files, commonly known as <i>.torrent</i> files. These files are essential for sharing content over the BitTorrent network, as they encapsulate critical information about the data being shared. This includes the names, sizes, and cryptographic SHA1 hashes of the content's pieces, along with the URL of the BitTorrent tracker responsible for coordinating the peer-to-peer distribution.<br><br>The tool offers capabilities such as specifying multiple tracker URLs, adding descriptive comments, setting custom piece sizes, and marking torrents as 'private' to restrict peer discovery to the tracker. Its minimalistic nature and command-line interface make it particularly well-suited for automation, scripting, and integration into custom workflows for efficient and controlled content distribution.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mktorrent</i> primarily focuses on creating the <i>.torrent</i> metadata file and does not manage torrent downloads or uploads. It does not natively support creating magnet links directly, nor does it typically include built-in features for peer discovery mechanisms like DHT or PEX unless explicitly configured via the 'private' flag. For advanced torrent functionalities or client-side operations, integration with a dedicated BitTorrent client is required.


title: PIECE SIZE SIGNIFICANCE
content:
The piece size (set with <b>-l</b>) determines how the torrented content is divided into chunks. A well-chosen piece size balances efficiency (fewer hashes, smaller <i>.torrent</i> file) with resilience (smaller chunks are faster to verify and re-download if corrupted).


title: STANDARD OUTPUT USAGE
content:
When the <b>-o</b> option is omitted, <i>mktorrent</i> outputs the binary <i>.torrent</i> file data to standard output. This allows for powerful piping operations, such as immediately compressing, encrypting, or transmitting the generated torrent file to another command or service.


title: PRIVATE TORRENTS AND TRACKERS
content:
The <b>-p</b> flag (private torrent) is crucial for controlling how peers discover each other. For private trackers, this flag ensures that peers only communicate through the tracker, preventing external discovery via DHT or PEX, which helps enforce tracker rules and ratios.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mktorrent</i> emerged as a straightforward, command-line utility for generating BitTorrent metafiles. Its development has been driven by the need for a lightweight tool that can be easily integrated into scripts and automated workflows, without the overhead of a full-fledged BitTorrent client. It has maintained a stable feature set, focusing on core torrent creation capabilities, and remains a popular choice for users and administrators who prefer a minimalist, efficient approach to publishing torrents on Linux systems.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-o, --output &lt;<i>file</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the name of the output Matroska file.<br><br><b>-d, --video-tracks &lt;<i>TID</i>&gt;[,<i>TID</i>]...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Selects specific video tracks from an input file to be included.<br><br><b>-a, --audio-tracks &lt;<i>TID</i>&gt;[,<i>TID</i>]...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Selects specific audio tracks from an input file to be included.<br><br><b>-s, --subtitle-tracks &lt;<i>TID</i>&gt;[,<i>TID</i>]...</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Selects specific subtitle tracks from an input file to be included.<br><br><b>-A, --no-audio</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables inclusion of all audio tracks from all input files.<br><br><b>-D, --no-video</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables inclusion of all video tracks from all input files.<br><br><b>-S, --no-subtitles</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables inclusion of all subtitle tracks from all input files.<br><br><b>--no-global-tags</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables inclusion of global tags from input files.<br><br><b>--no-attachments</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disables inclusion of attachments from input files.<br><br><b>--default-track &lt;<i>TID</i>&gt;:[0|1]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the 'default track' flag for a specific track (0=no, 1=yes). Only one default track per type is allowed.<br><br><b>--forced-track &lt;<i>TID</i>&gt;:[0|1]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the 'forced track' flag for a specific track (0=no, 1=yes).<br><br><b>--track-name &lt;<i>TID</i>&gt;:&lt;<i>name</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets a user-defined name for a specific track (e.g., 'Director's Commentary').<br><br><b>--language &lt;<i>TID</i>&gt;:&lt;<i>lang</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the language code for a specific track (e.g., 'eng' for English, 'jpn' for Japanese).<br><br><b>--chapters &lt;<i>file</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds chapter information from an XML or OGM style chapter file.<br><br><b>--tags &lt;<i>TID</i>&gt;:&lt;<i>file</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds tags for a specific track from an XML tags file.<br><br><b>--global-tags &lt;<i>file</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Adds global tags for the entire movie from an XML tags file.<br><br><b>--attach-file &lt;<i>file</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Attaches a file to the Matroska file (e.g., cover art, fonts).<br><br><b>--attach-file-mime-type &lt;<i>type</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the MIME type for the last attached file (e.g., 'image/jpeg', 'font/ttf').<br><br><b>--split &lt;<i>method</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Splits the output file into multiple segments. Methods include <i>size:&lt;size&gt;</i>, <i>duration:&lt;duration</i>&gt;, <i>chapters:&lt;count</i>&gt;, etc.<br><br><b>--title &lt;<i>title</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the main title for the Matroska file (movie title).<br><br><b>-i, --identify &lt;<i>file</i>&gt;</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints detailed track information from an input file without muxing, useful for identifying track IDs.<br><br><b>-v, --verbose</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Increases verbosity, showing more information about the muxing process.<br><br><b>-q, --quiet</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppresses all messages except for errors and warnings.<br><br><b>-h, --help</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the help message with a list of all available options.<br><br><b>-V, --version</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows version information for mkvmerge.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mkvmerge</i> is a powerful command-line tool part of the <i>mkvtoolnix</i> suite designed for creating, modifying, and examining Matroska (MKV) files. It allows users to combine multiple audio, video, and subtitle tracks into a single MKV container. Beyond simple muxing, <i>mkvmerge</i> provides extensive control over the resulting file, including options for setting default tracks, specifying track languages, adding chapter information, embedding tags, attaching files, and splitting output into multiple segments based on size, duration, or number of files. It supports a wide array of input formats and allows for flexible track selection and manipulation, making it an indispensable tool for multimedia enthusiasts and professionals working with MKV files. It does not edit the content of the tracks themselves but rather re-packages them into the Matroska container.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mkvmerge</i> is primarily a <b>muxer</b>, not a stream editor. It combines existing audio, video, and subtitle streams into a new Matroska file but does not modify the actual content of these streams (e.g., cutting, re-encoding). Any content modification requires external tools and re-muxing. Also, track IDs assigned to streams by <i>mkvmerge</i> during the muxing process can differ from their original IDs in the input files. Always use <i>--identify</i> or <i>mkvinfo</i> to confirm track IDs for subsequent operations.


title: TRACK IDENTIFICATION
content:
When working with <i>mkvmerge</i>, understanding track IDs is crucial for selecting specific streams. Use <br><code>mkvinfo &lt;<i>input_file</i>&gt;</code><br> or <br><code>mkvmerge -i &lt;<i>input_file</i>&gt;</code><br> to list all tracks and their corresponding IDs within an input file. These IDs are then used with options like <i>--audio-tracks</i>, <i>--video-tracks</i>, <i>--language</i>, etc.


title: DEFAULT FLAGS AND LANGUAGES
content:
For optimal playback compatibility and user experience, it's highly recommended to set default track flags (using <i>--default-track</i>) and language codes (using <i>--language</i>) for all relevant tracks. This helps media players automatically select the preferred audio or subtitle tracks.


title: SPLITTING LARGE FILES
content:
<i>mkvmerge</i> offers sophisticated splitting capabilities, allowing users to divide large output files into smaller segments based on criteria such as size, duration, or a specific number of output files. This feature is particularly useful for managing storage, burning to optical discs, or preparing files for streaming.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mkvmerge</i> is a core component of the <i>mkvtoolnix</i> software suite, which was initially developed by Moritz Bunkus. The project began in the early 2000s, coinciding with the rise of the Matroska multimedia container format. <i>mkvtoolnix</i> aimed to provide robust command-line tools for working with Matroska files on various operating systems, including Linux, macOS, and Windows. <i>mkvmerge</i> quickly became a de-facto standard for creating and manipulating MKV files due to its extensive feature set, flexibility, and active development, ensuring continuous support for new Matroska features and codecs.


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mkzftree</b> [ <i>-a</i> ] [ <i>-l</i> ] [ <i>-s</i> ] [ <i>-v</i> ] [ <i>-t</i> ] [ <i>-h</i> | <i>--help</i> ] <br><i>&lt;target_directory&gt;</i>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>&lt;target_directory&gt;</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The path to the root directory where the ZFS dataset tree will be created. This directory must be writable by the user running the command.<br><br><b><i>-a</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Include all ZFS datasets, not just those with the 'zfs-auto-snapshot:enabled' property set to 'true'.<br><br><b><i>-l</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;List the ZFS datasets and snapshots that would be processed, but do not actually create any files or directories (dry-run for listing).<br><br><b><i>-s</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Create symbolic links to the ZFS snapshots instead of hard links or copies. This saves disk space on the target filesystem if it's not ZFS, but might not work on all filesystems or may not be suitable for all backup scenarios.<br><br><b><i>-v</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable verbose output, showing more details about the datasets and snapshots being processed.<br><br><b><i>-t</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Perform a test run without making any actual changes to the filesystem. This is a general dry-run option.<br><br><b><i>-h</i>, <i>--help</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a help message and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mkzftree</i> is a utility script designed to make ZFS datasets and their snapshots accessible to traditional Unix tools like <i>rsync</i>, <i>tar</i>, or <i>cp</i>. It does this by creating a conventional directory hierarchy in a specified target location that mirrors the structure of ZFS pools, datasets, and their snapshots. <br><br> Ordinarily, ZFS snapshots are internal to the ZFS filesystem and not directly navigable as standard directories. <i>mkzftree</i> bridges this gap by creating special "tree" directories (typically in a non-ZFS filesystem, or another ZFS dataset if desired) where each dataset appears as a directory, and its snapshots appear as subdirectories within an "@snapshots" folder. <br><br> This allows for seamless traversal and backup of ZFS snapshots using tools that do not natively understand ZFS. It's commonly used in conjunction with <i>zfs-auto-snapshot</i> to facilitate automated, incremental backups of ZFS data to remote locations or other storage mediums.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mkzftree</i> is a helper script and not a core ZFS utility; it relies on the presence and proper functioning of the underlying <i>zfs</i> command. <br><br> The user executing <i>mkzftree</i> must have sufficient permissions to read ZFS dataset information and write to the specified <i>&lt;target_directory&gt;</i>. <br><br> If the <i>-s</i> (symlink) option is not used, and the target filesystem is not ZFS (which natively handles snapshots efficiently), creating hard links or copies for large numbers of snapshots can consume significant disk space. Performance can also be impacted on very large ZFS pools with extensive snapshot histories due to the overhead of listing and processing each snapshot.


title: TYPICAL USAGE
content:
After running <i>mkzftree /path/to/snapshot_tree</i>, you can use standard tools to back up the contents. For instance, to rsync snapshots to a remote server:<br><i><b>rsync -a -H --delete /path/to/snapshot_tree/ /mnt/backup_target/</b></i><br>This command would copy the latest data and relevant snapshots to the backup destination, handling changes incrementally.


title: TREE STRUCTURE
content:
The structure created by <i>mkzftree</i> typically looks like this:<br><i><b>&lt;target_directory&gt;/</b></i><br><i><b>├── pool/dataset_A/</b></i><br><i><b>│   └── @snapshots/</b></i><br><i><b>│       ├── hourly-2023-10-27_10.00/</b></i><br><i><b>│       └── daily-2023-10-26_00.00/</b></i><br><i><b>└── pool/dataset_B/</b></i><br><i><b>    └── @snapshots/</b></i><br><i><b>        └── weekly-2023-10-23_00.00/</b></i><br>Each directory within the <i>@snapshots</i> folder represents a specific ZFS snapshot, allowing its contents to be accessed as if it were a regular directory.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mkzftree</i> originated as a component of the <i>zfs-auto-snapshot</i> project, a popular tool for automating ZFS snapshot creation and retention. Its development was driven by the need to bridge the gap between ZFS's powerful snapshot capabilities and the traditional Unix toolchain (like <i>rsync</i> and <i>tar</i>) that lacks native ZFS understanding. By providing a filesystem-like representation of snapshots, <i>mkzftree</i> enabled easier, more robust backup and replication strategies for ZFS users.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-V</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Displays the version information for the <b>mlabel</b> command.<br><br><b>-s</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Shows the current volume label of the specified drive. This option is mutually exclusive with setting or clearing a label.<br><br><b>-c</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Clears the current volume label, effectively removing it and leaving the volume without a label. This option is mutually exclusive with setting a new label.<br><br><b>-N <i>serial_number</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets the volume serial number. This is an 8-character hexadecimal number that uniquely identifies the volume. If not specified, a default or existing serial number is kept.<br><br><b><i>drive:</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The MS-DOS drive specifier (e.g., <b>a:</b>, <b>c:</b>) that you wish to label or query. This parameter is mandatory for any operation other than displaying the version.<br><br><b>[<i>new_label</i>]</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The desired new volume label for the specified drive. It can be up to 11 characters long. If this argument is omitted, <b>mlabel</b> will display the current label instead of setting a new one. Characters are automatically converted to uppercase, and invalid characters are stripped.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mlabel</b> is a command-line utility used to manage volume labels for MS-DOS filesystems, such as FAT partitions or traditional floppy disks. It is an essential component of the <b>mtools</b> software suite, which enables Linux and other Unix-like operating systems to interact with DOS media without requiring a kernel-level mount.<br><br>When invoked with a drive specifier (e.g., <b>a:</b>) and a <i>new_label</i>, <b>mlabel</b> sets or changes the volume label of the specified drive. If the <i>new_label</i> argument is omitted, the command will display the current volume label of the drive. The volume label is limited to 11 characters and is automatically converted to uppercase by <b>mlabel</b>. The utility relies on the <b>mtools</b> configuration files to map drive letters to their corresponding physical devices.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mlabel</b> is designed exclusively for use with MS-DOS (FAT12, FAT16, FAT32) filesystems. It will not work with native Linux filesystems like ext4, XFS, or Btrfs.<br><br>The command's functionality is dependent on the proper configuration of <b>mtools</b>, which defines the mapping between MS-DOS drive letters (e.g., <b>a:</b>) and actual Linux device files (e.g., <b>/dev/fd0</b>, <b>/dev/sda1</b>). These mappings are typically found in <b>/etc/mtools.conf</b> or <b>~/.mtoolsrc</b>.<br><br>Volume labels are limited to 11 characters. <b>mlabel</b> automatically converts labels to uppercase and strips characters that are not valid in MS-DOS volume labels.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mlabel</b> is an integral part of the <b>mtools</b> software suite, which was developed to facilitate seamless interaction between Unix-like operating systems (such as Linux) and MS-DOS filesystems. Its inception dates back to the early days of personal computing, when MS-DOS was prevalent and direct access to DOS-formatted media (like floppy disks) was often necessary for data exchange.<br><br>The primary motivation behind <b>mtools</b>, and consequently <b>mlabel</b>, was to allow users to manipulate MS-DOS files and directories without needing to mount the entire filesystem through the kernel. This provided a lightweight and convenient way to manage DOS media directly from the command line, establishing <b>mlabel</b> as a stable and consistent utility within the <b>mtools</b> package for decades.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-b, --basename</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Match only the base name of the path, not the full path.<br><br><b><b>-c, --case-sensitive</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Perform a case-sensitive search. This overrides the default case-insensitive behavior.<br><br><b><b>-d, --database <i>PATH</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify an alternative database file to search instead of the default <i>/var/lib/mlocate/mlocate.db</i>.<br><br><b><b>-e, --existing</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Only print entries that existed at the time <b>mlocate</b> was run. This checks the filesystem for actual file existence.<br><br><b><b>-i, --ignore-case</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Perform a case-insensitive search. This is the default behavior.<br><br><b><b>-L, --local-filesystem</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Limit the search to filesystems that were considered local during the <b>updatedb</b> run. This excludes network filesystems.<br><br><b><b>-l, --limit <i>NUM</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Limit the number of search results to <i>NUM</i>.<br><br><b><b>-P, --nofollow</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Do not follow symbolic links when determining file paths (relevant to how <b>updatedb</b> built the database).<br><br><b><b>-r, --regexp</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Interpret the <i>PATTERN</i> as a basic regular expression (BRE).<br><br><b><b>-q, --quiet</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Suppress any error messages.<br><br><b><b>-S, --statistics</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print statistics about the database, such as the number of files and directories.<br><br><b><b>-s, --stdio</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print results to standard output, one path per line.<br><br><b><b>-U, --filesystem <i>FS</i></b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Restrict the search to specific filesystems that were included in the database by <b>updatedb</b>.<br><br><b><b>-V, --version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display version information and exit.<br><br><b><b>-w, --wholename</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Match the entire path name, not just the base name. This is the default behavior.<br><br><b><b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display a help message and exit.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
The <b>mlocate</b> command is a powerful utility for quickly locating files and directories on a Linux system. Unlike the <b>find</b> command, which traverses the live filesystem, <b>mlocate</b> performs searches against a pre-built database, typically located at <i>/var/lib/mlocate/mlocate.db</i>. This database is generated and regularly updated by the <b>updatedb</b> command, usually through a daily cron job. <br><br>Because it relies on a database, <b>mlocate</b> delivers results almost instantaneously, making it exceptionally fast for common searches. However, this also means its results are only as current as the last database update. Files created or deleted since the last <b>updatedb</b> run will not be accurately reflected. <br><br><b>mlocate</b> also incorporates security features: the database only contains paths visible to the user who ran <b>updatedb</b> (typically root), and when a regular user runs <b>mlocate</b>, it filters the results to show only files they currently have permission to access.


title: CAVEATS
content:
The primary limitation of <b>mlocate</b> is that its database is not real-time. Results may be outdated, failing to show newly created files or showing files that have since been deleted. <br><br>While <b>mlocate</b> filters results based on current user permissions, the database itself contains all entries visible to the user who ran <b>updatedb</b> (usually root). This means that potentially sensitive filenames might be present in the database, even if a user cannot access the file content.


title: DATABASE LOCATION
content:
The default database file for <b>mlocate</b> is typically located at <i>/var/lib/mlocate/mlocate.db</i>. This file is usually owned by root and has restricted permissions.


title: DATABASE UPDATES
content:
The <b>mlocate</b> database is not updated automatically in real-time. It relies on the <b>updatedb</b> command to scan the filesystem and rebuild the database. On most systems, <b>updatedb</b> is configured to run daily via a cron job, ensuring the database remains reasonably current.


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mlocate</b>, short for 'merging locate', was developed as a modern and more secure successor to the traditional <b>locate</b> command. Older <b>locate</b> implementations often had security vulnerabilities related to how they handled permissions and paths. <b>mlocate</b> was designed to address these issues by using a more robust database format and by filtering results based on the current user's permissions at runtime. It also often provides better performance for very large filesystems compared to its predecessors.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><b>-h</b>, <b>--help</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display help for <i>mlr</i> or a specific verb.<br><br><b><b>-v</b>, <b>--version</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print <i>mlr</i> version information.<br><br><b><b>-I</b>, <b>--inplace</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Edit files in place (requires a backup unless disabled).<br><br><b><b>-N</b>, <b>--no-auto-header</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Treat the first line of input as data, not as a header row.<br><br><b><b>-S</b> <i>{count}</i>, <b>--skip-header-lines</b> <i>{count}</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Skip <i>count</i> lines from the start of input before processing.<br><br><b><b>-i</b> <i>{format}</i>, <b>--iformat</b> <i>{format}</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify input format (e.g., <i>csv</i>, <i>tsv</i>, <i>json</i>, <i>jsonl</i>, <i>nidx</i>, <i>raw</i>). <i>mlr</i> often infers this.<br><br><b><b>-o</b> <i>{format}</i>, <b>--oformat</b> <i>{format}</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify output format (e.g., <i>csv</i>, <i>tsv</i>, <i>json</i>, <i>jsonl</i>, <i>nidx</i>, <i>pprint</i>, <i>xtab</i>). Default matches input format.<br><br><b><b>-C</b> <i>{char}</i>, <b>--ifs</b> <i>{char}</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set input field separator character. Default depends on the input format (e.g., comma for CSV, tab for TSV).<br><br><b><b>-c</b> <i>{char}</i>, <b>--ofs</b> <i>{char}</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set output field separator character. Default depends on the output format.<br><br><b><b>-F</b> <i>{char}</i>, <b>--irs</b> <i>{char}</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set input record separator character. Default is newline for most formats.<br><br><b><b>-f</b> <i>{char}</i>, <b>--ors</b> <i>{char}</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set output record separator character. Default is newline for most formats.<br><br><b><b>-T</b>, <b>--stack-traces</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Print full stack traces on errors, useful for debugging complex scripts.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mlr</i>, or Miller, is a powerful command-line tool designed for processing delimited data files such as CSV, TSV, and JSON. It functions similarly to traditional Unix tools like <i>awk</i>, <i>sed</i>, <i>cut</i>, <i>sort</i>, <i>join</i>, and <i>grep</i>, but is specifically optimized for structured data.<br><br><i>mlr</i> operates on "records" (lines) and "fields" (columns), allowing users to filter, reformat, sort, join, and aggregate data using a powerful, verb-based syntax. It automatically infers data types and handles various input/output formats, making it an indispensable tool for data manipulation, scripting, and exploratory data analysis directly from the terminal. Its strength lies in its ability to handle header rows and refer to fields by name, significantly simplifying complex data transformations.


title: CAVEATS
content:
While powerful, <i>mlr</i> has a steeper learning curve than simpler tools like <i>cut</i> or <i>grep</i> due to its verb-based syntax and field-aware operations. For very large datasets, some memory-intensive operations (e.g., sorting, joining with large keys) might consume significant RAM, as <i>mlr</i> often loads records into memory for processing. It excels with flat, delimited files; highly nested JSON or complex XML structures are not its primary focus, although its JSON support is robust for arrays of objects.


title: VERB PARADIGM
content:
<i>mlr</i> operates using a "verb" paradigm, which is central to its design. Instead of a single command with many flags, you specify an action (a verb) followed by options specific to that verb. This modular design makes <i>mlr</i> highly flexible, extensible, and powerful for chaining operations. Common verbs include <i>cat</i> (display), <i>cut</i> (select/reorder fields), <i>sort</i> (sort by field), <i>filter</i> (select records), <i>stats</i> (aggregate data), <i>join</i> (merge data from multiple files), <i>group-by</i> (group records by field values), <i>rename</i> (rename fields), and <i>put</i> (create/modify fields using expressions).


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mlr</i> (Miller) was created by John Kerl, with its first public release appearing around 2013-2014. It was designed to address the limitations of traditional Unix command-line tools when processing structured data formats like CSV and TSV, offering a more robust and field-aware alternative. Its development has been consistently active, continuously adding new verbs, input/output formats, and performance optimizations, establishing it as an indispensable tool for data scientists, system administrators, and anyone working with structured text data directly from the terminal.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b>-o <outfile></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specifies the name of the output DOT file. If not provided, output is written to standard output.<br><br><br><b>-s <scale></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sets a floating-point scale factor for node separation in the generated graph. A larger scale value tends to spread nodes further apart.<br><br><br><b>-N<shape></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Defines the shape of the nodes representing rows and columns in the graph. Common shapes include <I>box</I>, <I>circle</I>, <I>ellipse</I>, etc. Refer to the <I>dot</I> man page for a full list of available node shapes.<br><br><br><b>-E<style></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Determines the visual style of the edges connecting nodes. Examples include <I>solid</I>, <I>dotted</I>, <I>dashed</I>, <I>bold</I>. Refer to the <I>dot</I> man page for more details on edge styles.<br><br><br><b>-V</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints the version information of the <b>mm2gv</b> command to standard error.<br><br><br><b>-?</b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Prints a brief usage message, listing the available options.<br><br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mm2gv</b> is a utility from the Graphviz suite designed to visualize sparse matrices. It reads a matrix in the standard <I>Matrix Market</I> format (typically `.mtx` files), which describes the structure of sparse matrices, and converts it into a <I>Graphviz DOT</I> language file. The resulting DOT file represents the matrix's sparsity pattern as a graph: rows and columns are depicted as nodes, and non-zero entries in the matrix are represented as edges connecting these nodes. This conversion allows users to leverage Graphviz layout engines (like <I>dot</I>, <I>neato</I>, etc.) to generate graphical representations (e.g., PNG, SVG) that clearly illustrate the distribution of non-zero elements. It's particularly useful for analyzing the structure of large, sparse matrices common in scientific computing and numerical analysis, providing an intuitive visual insight into their underlying graph structure.<br>


title: CAVEATS
content:
While <b>mm2gv</b> effectively visualizes sparse matrices, rendering very large matrices (with millions of non-zero entries) can produce extremely dense graphs that are difficult to interpret or even render by Graphviz layout engines due to computational complexity and visual clutter. Users should be mindful of the input matrix size and consider sampling or alternative visualization techniques for extremely large datasets.<br>


title: INPUT FORMAT: MATRIX MARKET
content:
The <I>Matrix Market</I> format is a simple, human-readable file format for representing sparse matrices. It is widely used in scientific computing and provides a standardized way to exchange matrix data. <b>mm2gv</b> expects the input file to conform to this standard, typically providing the matrix dimensions and a list of non-zero elements with their row, column, and value.<br>


title: OUTPUT FORMAT: GRAPHVIZ DOT
content:
The <I>Graphviz DOT</I> language is a plain text graph description language. <b>mm2gv</b> translates the sparse matrix structure into a DOT graph, where matrix rows and columns become nodes, and non-zero entries become edges. This DOT file can then be processed by other Graphviz tools (like <I>dot</I>, <I>neato</I>) to generate various graphical outputs such as PNG, SVG, PDF, etc.<br>


title: SPARSITY PATTERN VISUALIZATION
content:
The primary use of <b>mm2gv</b> is to visualize the <I>sparsity pattern</I> of a matrix. This pattern reveals the distribution of non-zero elements, which can be critical for understanding a matrix's properties, optimizing algorithms, or identifying underlying network structures. By converting this pattern into a visual graph, <b>mm2gv</b> makes complex matrix structures intuitively accessible.<br>


title: HISTORY
content:
<b>mm2gv</b> is an integral part of the Graphviz (Graph Visualization Software) project, which was originally developed at <I>AT&T Labs Research</I>. Graphviz provides a robust set of tools for graph drawing, and <b>mm2gv</b> was created to extend its capabilities to the domain of scientific computing, specifically for visualizing the inherent graph structures within sparse matrices. Its development underscores the importance of visual analysis in understanding complex data structures prevalent in fields like numerical linear algebra and network science. It has been part of the Graphviz distribution for many years, evolving alongside the core library to maintain compatibility and utility.<br>


title: SYNOPSIS
content:
<b>mmcli</b> [<I>GLOBAL_OPTIONS</I>] [<I>OBJECT_SELECTION_OPTIONS</I>] [<I>COMMAND</I>] [<I>COMMAND_OPTIONS</I>]<br><br>Examples:<br><b>mmcli</b> <B>-L</b><br><b>mmcli</b> <B>-M 0</b> <B>--enable</b><br><b>mmcli</b> <B>-m 0</b> <B>--signal-setup=rate=5</b>


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><B>--help</B>, <B>-h</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Show help message and exit.<br><br><b><B>--version</B>, <B>-v</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Display version information and exit.<br><br><b><B>--list-modems</B>, <B>-L</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;List all detected modem objects.<br><br><b><B>--list-sims</B>, <B>-S</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;List all detected SIM card objects.<br><br><b><B>--list-bearers</B>, <B>-B</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;List all data bearer objects.<br><br><b><B>--list-all</B>, <B>-a</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;List all ModemManager objects (modems, SIMs, bearers, SMS, etc.).<br><br><b><B>--modem=</B><I>INDEX|PATH</I>, <B>-M </B><I>INDEX|PATH</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the modem object to operate on, using its numerical index or D-Bus path.<br><br><b><B>--sim=</B><I>INDEX|PATH</I>, <B>-s </B><I>INDEX|PATH</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the SIM object to operate on.<br><br><b><B>--bearer=</B><I>INDEX|PATH</I>, <B>-b </B><I>INDEX|PATH</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the data bearer object to operate on.<br><br><b><B>--sms=</B><I>INDEX|PATH</I>, <B>-C </B><I>INDEX|PATH</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Specify the SMS message object to operate on.<br><br><b><B>--enable</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Enable the selected modem (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--disable</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disable the selected modem (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--connect=</B><I>BEARER_PATH</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Connect the selected modem using a specified bearer (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--disconnect=</B><I>BEARER_PATH</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Disconnect the selected modem from a specified bearer (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--create-bearer=</B><I>[APN=...],[IP_TYPE=...]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Create a new data bearer with specified properties (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--delete-bearer=</B><I>BEARER_PATH</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Delete a specified data bearer (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--send-sms=</B><I>[text="..."],[number="+..."]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Send an SMS message with content and destination number (requires <B>--modem</B> or <B>--messaging</B>).<br><br><b><B>--signal-setup=</B><I>[rate=...],[threshold=...]</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Configure signal strength monitoring for the modem (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--power-down</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Power down the selected modem (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--reset</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Reset the selected modem (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--set-allowed-modes=</B><I>MODES</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Set allowed network modes (e.g., '2g,3g,4g') for the modem (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br><b><B>--unlock-pin=</B><I>PIN</I></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Unlock the SIM card using a PIN (requires <B>--sim</B>).<br><br><b><B>--monitor-modem</B></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Continuously monitor properties and signals of a selected modem (requires <B>--modem</B>).<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<i>mmcli</i> is the command-line interface for <br><b>ModemManager</b>, a D-Bus service that provides a unified API for managing mobile broadband modems. It allows users to inspect, control, and interact with modems, SIM cards, data bearers, and SMS messages. <br><br>With <i>mmcli</i>, you can list available modems, enable/disable them, connect to mobile networks, send and receive SMS, manage network configurations (APN, IP type), monitor signal strength, and perform firmware updates. It is an essential tool for system administrators and developers working with mobile broadband on headless servers, embedded systems, or for scripting modem automation tasks.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<i>mmcli</i> relies on the <b>ModemManager</b> service running and accessible via D-Bus. <br>Users often require elevated privileges (e.g., root or membership in the 'dialout' or 'network' group) to interact with modems. <br>Feature support can vary significantly between different modem hardware and firmware versions, meaning not all commands will work with every modem.


title: OBJECT-ORIENTED INTERACTION
content:
<i>mmcli</i> organizes modem functionalities around D-Bus objects such as modems, SIMs, bearers, and SMS. Each object has a unique D-Bus path (e.g., <I>/org/freedesktop/ModemManager1/Modem/0</I>) and an associated index, allowing precise targeting of commands to specific components. This structure enables granular control over various aspects of the mobile broadband connection.


title: INTEGRATION WITH NETWORKMANAGER
content:
While <i>mmcli</i> provides direct command-line control, <b>NetworkManager</b> often uses <b>ModemManager</b> in the background to manage mobile broadband connections automatically. For desktop users, <b>NetworkManager</b> is typically the primary interface for managing network connections, while <i>mmcli</i> offers a more granular, scriptable control for advanced scenarios, troubleshooting, and headless system deployments.


title: HISTORY
content:
<i>mmcli</i> is an integral part of the <b>ModemManager</b> project, initiated to standardize and simplify interaction with diverse mobile broadband hardware on Linux. It has evolved significantly since its inception, continually adding support for new modem types, cellular technologies (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G), and complex functionalities, making it a robust and comprehensive tool for network management. Its development parallels the growing need for unified management of mobile connectivity in the Linux ecosystem.


title: PARAMETERS
content:
<b><i>msdosdirectory</i></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The target MS-DOS path(s) and name(s) for the new directory or directories to be created. Multiple directory paths can be specified as arguments.<br><br><b><b>-v</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Provide verbose output, showing details of the operation as it progresses.<br><br><b><b>-D</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Delete the existing directory if it already exists before creating a new one. This option forces recreation.<br><br><b><b>-/</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Use the forward slash (<i>/</i>) as the path separator instead of the backslash (<i>\</i>) for MS-DOS paths. This option is useful for specifying MS-DOS paths in a Unix-like manner.<br><br><b><b>-s</b></b><br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Treat the current directory as the root of a FAT filesystem. This option is mostly useful for creating a FAT filesystem within a disk image, acting as a shortcut for combining <i>mformat</i> and <i>mmd</i> actions.<br><br>


title: DESCRIPTION
content:
<b>mmd</b> is a command-line utility from the <i>mtools</i> package, designed to create new subdirectories on an MS-DOS filesystem. This command is particularly useful when working with floppy disks, disk images, or partitions formatted with FAT (File Allocation Table) filesystems, common in older DOS/Windows environments. It allows Linux users to manage MS-DOS directory structures directly without needing to mount the filesystem explicitly.<br><br><b>mmd</b> ensures that the newly created directory conforms to the 8.3 filename convention and other FAT filesystem rules. It's an essential tool for preparing MS-DOS boot disks, organizing files on vintage systems, or handling disk images containing legacy software. The command operates on a specified MS-DOS path, which can include drive letters or relative paths within the <i>mtools</i> configuration. It mimics the functionality of the DOS `MD` or `MKDIR` command.


title: CAVEATS
content:
<b>mmd</b> is part of the <i>mtools</i> suite, which primarily handles FAT filesystems. It does not work with modern Linux filesystems like Ext4 or XFS directly. Users must be aware of MS-DOS filename conventions (e.g., 8.3 format) and directory structure limitations when using this command. Incorrect usage with disk images can lead to data corruption if the image is not a valid FAT filesystem or if operations are performed on a mounted filesystem that is not managed by <i>mtools</i>.


title: HISTORY
content:
The <b>mmd</b> command is an integral part of the <i>mtools</i> software package, which originated to provide Unix-like systems with tools for interacting with MS-DOS filesystems. <i>mtools</i> was developed to bridge the gap between Unix and DOS environments, allowing users to read, write, and manage files on floppy disks and other media formatted for MS-DOS without needing to mount them directly. <b>mmd</b> specifically addresses the need to create directories, mimicking the functionality of DOS's <i>MD</i> or <i>MKDIR</i> command. Its development parallels the widespread use of DOS and FAT filesystems, making it a critical utility for maintaining compatibility and managing data across different operating systems, especially for legacy systems and archives.


